a natural son. If what they did a century ago was perfect in its kind it is impossible to improve upon it, and shows rather the perfection of reason than the reverse. As far as we are able to observe, they fulfil the end of their being, and are necessitated to do as they do by the two master passions, lust and hunger, the ruling impulses actuating all living creatures-the one necessary for the continuance of the species, and the other for the support of life. More cannot be said of man. If the brute has faculties given it sufficiently powerful to an apparently limited sphere of enjoyment, so has man for his more extended sphere of existence, and the different part he has to play in life. But even he has no useless or superfluous faculties; all that he possesses are necessary for the maintenance of his physical and moral welfare. But whatever they are, we submit there is no proof they are different in kind, however much in degree, from those of the inferior organized beings. persist in attributing to them " blind impulse to certain actions, without having any end in view, without deliberation, and very often without any conception of what they do?"* Is it because he is too proud to acknowledge the link connecting him with the lower natures, and insists on having special powers of thought and perception, of a nature totally different and distinct from those of other creatures? Is it not surely enough that he is placed at the head of all created beings, gifted with powers vastly higher than the most sagacious of the lower animals, and endowed with vocal utter-swer the ends of life, and to contribute to its ance-that power which must ever render an equality between him and them impossible. But this doctrine of a blind impulse is inconsistent with facts, for "the effects of instinct should be always uniform, and proceed precisely in the same track, as it is a kind of blind impulse impressed upon the animals, which is exactly the reverse of reason. But in the actions usually called instinctive, as the building of a nest, we discover symptoms of reason; we see the bird adapting itself to circumstances, both in the position and choice of its materials. If it cannot procure the substance which similar birds employ, it endeavours to get something like it; and if it cannot build the nest exactly in the proper situation, it searches out for one resembling it." Scores of similar instances of adaptation to circumstances might be quoted in support of this part of the argument. We have no grounds, therefore, to assume that these creatures are impelled to do anything they perform "without any conception of what they do," or "without having any end in view." "Persona" says they have not the "faculty of free determination." We answer, how does he know that? Has he questioned the bee, the beaver, the ant, or the bird, why they do this or that? If he were gifted with faculties by which he could communicate with them, as man does with man, it is possible they might be able to impart to him reasons for their conduct, perhaps quite as rational as any that man can give for the conduct he pursues. To say that the ant, the bee, and the beaver exhibited precisely the same degree of ingenuity and perfection centuries ago as now, does not prove the want of rea Reid. This view of the question is also consistent with what has been elsewhere observed of the Creator's laws. The more the secrets of nature are penetrated, the more strongly is developed a love of simplicity in the adaptation of means to ends; for where one instrumentality suffices, we never find a multiplication of them. There is no reason, therefore, to suppose he would follow a different course in the laws of mind. To us, it seems more in accordance with this observed characteristic of the proceedings of the Deity, to suppose He has gifted the lower animals with reason, than to imagine them endowed with complicated facultiesbeing neither instinct nor reason—sometimes one being predominant, sometimes the other, and sometimes exhibiting a strange admixture of both. In conclusion, we remark that the light in which we have considered this question necessarily raises the lower animals in our estimation; for no one can think meanly of, or use harshly and cruelly, the creature he believes is gifted with the faculty of reason, however small its ray. At the same time it tends to promote humility of heart and mind, and to check the risings of pride and presumption, which, alas! are ever too ready to choke the better feelings of our nature. Leeds. BETA. Bistory. WAS MAHOMET AN IMPOSTOR? AFFIRMATIVE ARTICLE.-III. MAN's outward conduct is almost invariably a true index to his mind. His actions should correspond with his profession, as they are regarded as a test of his sincerity. We shall apply this rule to the subject before us, and consider whether Mahomet's conduct proves him to have been a sincere man or a designing impostor. We have arrived at the latter conclusion, and shall endeavour to lay before our readers the facts which have led us to it. It has been urged by our opponents that Mahomet was subject to fits of epilepsy and mental hallucination, in which he fancied he had revelations from heaven, and thus became the dupe of his own imagination. This might be the case in the early part of his career, but his subsequent conduct presents the unmistakeable signs of an impostor. He was not always entranced; and even if, in such a state, he had imagined himself entrusted with a divine commission, he would have discovered his mistake when "in his right mind." His unclouded reason would then have shown him that such things were only the creatures of imagination. It is rather strange, as our friend P. D. observes, that such a man, "wise in many respects, was a fool only when his worldly interests were likely to be furthered by being such." Between the impostor and the sincere man there is a wide difference. The latter has no worldly motive in view, nor does he promulgate his views by fraud and deceit; but, firmly believing in the truth of his creed, he relies upon that fact for success, knowing that " magna est veritas, et prævalebit." The impostor, however, invariably seeks personal aggrandizement, and employs force and fraud in the promulgation of his principles. If we can prove satisfactorily that this was done by Mahomet, we shall establish the truth of our assertion that he was an impostor. It is evident, from the facts recorded in the "Life of Mahomet," that his principal object was personal aggrandizement, and that he did not propagate his opinions with the desire of benefiting his fellow men. Had he been sincerely actuated by such a desire, he would not have employed physical force, nor put into practice (as in the case of Abu Lofian) the Moslem maxim, "To convince stubborn unbelievers, there is no argument like the sword." In a short time after the declaration of his divine mission, Mahomet "found an army at his command; for among the many converts daily made in Medina, the fugitives flocking to him from Mecca, and proselytes from the tribes of the desert, were men of resolute spirit, and skilled in the use of arms." This was a grand instrument for the accomplishment of Mahomet's designs, and he did not fail to use it. "Let those who promulgate my faith," said he, "enter into no argument or discussion; but slay all who refuse obedience to the law." His first exploits were confined to attacking Koreishite caravans, out of revenge for the persecution he had experienced from that tribe. tumult arising, shortly after, between some Jews and Moslems in Medina, Mahomet insisted "that the offending tribes should forthwith embrace the faith." This they refused to do, and kept possession of their stronghold for some time, but were ultimately starved into submission. We next find him subduing the small tribes around him, and bringing them under his dominion and faith. "His views as a statesman increased as his A territories widened." He sent envoys to those princes who were too powerful to be conquered, inviting them to embrace the faith; and, soon after, added the important city of Mecca to his dominions, by its surprise and capture. He thus "made himself sovereign of nearly all Arabia.” It is urged that the persecution and obloquy endured by Mahomet prove his sincerity and the absence of ambitious motives in the promulgation of his faith. But what will deter an ambitious man from prosecuting his designs? Look, for example, at the Mormon impostor, Smith. He endured far more persecution than Mahomet. He was beaten and insulted on every hand, and finally murdered by a mob. And yet few who have read his life, and the glaring absurdities of his "revelations," will deny him to be an impostor. Notwithstanding the persecution to which he was subjected, he pursued his career undaunted, until he gained his ambitious ends, and, like Mahomet, found himself at the head of a deluded multitude, who reverenced him, and submitted to his sway. We might give other examples, but this is sufficient, and proves that persecution will not prevent an impostor from spreading his principles, especially when he is such a "striving man" as the "warrior-prophet." The means by which Mahomet promulgated his doctrines prove very forcibly his character as an impostor. Instead of the frank and open dealings of an honest man, he resorted to fraud and deceit, which are the distinguishing characteristics of an impostor. In perusing his life, we find that, whenever a difficulty or a dispute arose, Mahomet always managed to get over it by some false assertion or excuse. We shall select a few out of many instances of this nature. Shortly after the return of Mahomet's army to Medina from the Syrian expedition, Abdallah Ibn Obba, the chief of the Khazradites, fell ill, and his life was despaired of. This man was a great enemy to Mahomet, and sought to destroy his influence by every means in his power; and "nothing could persuade him that Mahomet was not an idolater at heart, and his revelations all imposture and deceit." Notwithstanding this, Mahomet attended him in his last illness, and followed his body to the grave, where, at the request of the son of the deceased, he put up prayers that his sins might be forgiven. Omar, a disciple of Mahomet, remonstrated with him in private for praying for a hypocrite; "but he was shrewdly answered by a text of the Koran: 'Thou mayest pray for the "hypocrites," or not, as thou wilt; but though thou shouldest pray seventy times, yet will they not be forgiven.' The prayers at Abdallah's grave, therefore, were put up out of policy, to win favour with the Khazradites.... Subsequently, he announced another revelation, which forbade him to pray by the death-bed or stand by the grave of any one who died in unbelief." From this it is evident that Mahomet could break the laws of the Koran when it suited his own purpose, which does not say much for his honesty or sincerity. Mahomet was also distinguished for receiving many remarkable revelations from heaven just when they were required to help him out of a difficulty. At the commencement of his career as a warrior, he used to attack and plunder caravans. One of these attacks was entrusted to a Moslem named Abdallah Ibu Jasch, who was sent out, with eight or ten resolute followers, during the holy month of Radjah, which was considered by the Arabs sacred from war and rapine. Abdallah was furnished with sealed instructions, not to be opened till the third day. Mahomet had several wives, and to each he assigned a separate habitation, and passed the twenty-four hours with them by turns. "It so happened, that, on one occasion, when he was sojourning with Hassa, the latter left her dwelling to visit her father. Returning unexpectedly, she surprised the prophet with his favourite and fortunate slave, Mariyah. The jealousy of Hassa was vociferous; and, to appease her, Mahomet took an oath never more to transgress with Mariyah, on which terms she promised secresy. She broke her promise, however, and told the other wives, which drew upon Mahomet a storm of reproaches; until, his patience being exhausted, he repudiated Hassa, and renounced all intercourse with the rest. "For a month he" These orders were vaguely yet significantly lay alone on a mat in a separate apartment; but Allah, at length, in consideration of his lonely state, sent down the first and sixth chapters of the Koran, absolving him from the oath respecting Mariyah." The same revelation informed the refractory wives that the restrictions imposed on ordinary men did not apply to the prophet.* *For this and following incidents in Mahomet's worded." He was instructed to proceed to the valley of Naklah, to watch for an expected Koreishite caravan; and the letter added, shrewdly, "Perhaps thou mayest be able to bring us some tidings of it." Abdallah understood the true meaning of the letter, and carried it out. He soon descried career we are indebted to Washington Irving's "Life of Mahomet." the caravan, attacked it, and returned to Medina laden with spoil. "All Medina was scandalized at this breach of the holy month. Mahomet, finding that he had ventured too far, pretended to be angry with Abdallah, and refused to take the share of the booty offered to him. Confiding in the vagueness of his instructions, he insisted that he had not commanded Abdallah to shed blood or commit any violence during the holy month. The clamour still continuing, and being echoed by the Koreishites of Mecca, produced the following passage of the Koran. "They will ask thee concerning the sacred month, whether they may make war therein. Answer: To war therein is grievous; but to deny God, to bar the path of God against his people, to drive true believers from his holy temple, and to worship idols, are sins far more grievous than to kill in the holy months." Having thus proclaimed divine sanction for the deed, Mahomet no longer hesitated to take his share of the booty. "The above passage of the Koran, however satisfactory it may have been to devout Moslems, will scarcely serve to exculpate their prophet in the eyes of the profane."* We expect it will not, especially in the eyes of the "profane" among the readers of the Controversialist. We might quote numerous examples like those already given, but we presume that they will be sufficient to prove our assertions respecting the character of Mahomet. They certainly do not bear out the flattering picture drawn by "Threlkeld;" and we opine our readers will not “regard this gentle, honest, striving man," Mahomet, as the "victim of a monster self-delusion," but as a designing impostor. ONWARD. * Washington Irving. NEGATIVE ARTICLE.-III. THE question of Mahometan imposition | deception it may be, it more than probably does not confine itself simply to the cha- is; but this is all we can safely assume of racter of Mahomet, but affects, in its con- those whose lives have wonderfully exemclusions, those far above him, as Christ, and plified their spoken thoughts-shown how those far beneath him, as Joseph Smith. divine is the possibility of human existence. By no exceptional rule let us judge of either, but submit each to the test of ages and of the human conscience. We may thus find a law whereon to base just judgments of all the grand characters of the past-the prophets of the Old, the apostles of the New Testament, and the heroes and martyrs of profane history. This law-the law of discrimination is also a theory of the inevitable force of religious belief. Religious conviction, more often the result of inward force than of outward fact, converts into inspired prophecy the imagination of the patrician in intellect. Forgetting the impossibilities of nature, the religious enthusiast is confined only by the limits of his thought. Everything is sacred in its origin. The goodness of his heart is no longer his goodness, but God's. His enthusiasm becomes a mental aberration; he sees wisdom no more as the result of intellectual adjustment, but transfers its source to the Source of eternal truth;-his genius is divine, his power derived from God. All this may appear deception, but does the appearance justify the assumption of the fact, the fact that what appears is? Self His conviction leads the inspired man further. It perfumes the wounds of heroes, consecrates the blood of martyrs. It combines with his temper in the production of his worded faith. Is he full of humility? so is the doctrine he teaches;-wild, uncul tured? even so is his creed. It may make him a votary or a zealot, pious or fanatic; yet his life is in the wild current of his faith, and with unwavering constancy he recoils not. Oppositions arise, threats of appalling savagery are cast against him, but he believes in himself, in his mission, in the worth of what he says, and so persists. By-and-by he dies violently upon a scaffold or a cross, or peaceably in his own home. It is all one to him and to the future. He has testified to a truth-to a truth of God. The words he has uttered shall blossom, and the deeds he has done bear fruit. Never yet has the uttered truth of a word, or the acted truth of a deed, passed away without its seed-time and its harvest. The wonderful discernment-the penetrative perspicuity of collective intelligence, displayed even in the winter-times of ignorance, in stinctively detects imposture, detects truth; allows the one to perish from exhaustion, but with a loud voice for ever applauds the other. Is not this the great fact of all history, whenever the judgment of humanity has been consulted? False prophets have sunk into oblivion amid the execration or the pity of their own-day world; but the undiminished glory of the Holiest and the Highest illumines the distant grandeur of the future, even as we incorporate it with the enlightenment of to-day. Never have the wild and extravagant theories of a visionary, elevated by no truth, sublimated by no gleams of faithful splendour, secured the continued sympathies of men, the long praises of history; but a new idea, a fresh conquered revelation for man, exemplified in the apostolic life of some divine missionary, is treasured in the faith of all time, in the hearts of all men. Christ lived and triumphed in his death, and eighteen hundred years have passed away; but he taught the holiest truth we know, added another certainty to the domin ions of humanity, and to-day we worship him as GOD. How many with pretensions far higher than his, have passed from the memory of man! Twelve hundred years have elapsed since Arabia the Happy was convulsed by the birth of a new claimant of prophetic honours; and since then the sacred places of the East have daily resounded with his praise. Shall we deny to Arab instinct not a matter of greater knowledge or superior intellect-that intuition which we claim for European, and disallow to Mahomet that sincerity which one hundred and eighty millions of people for twelve hundred years have continued to recognize in him? There is a truth in Mahomet, as there is a sublimer truth in Christ, else would human conscience-sole test of human virtue-reject his doctrines and forget his name. So much for the general question, as concerns all men. Let us now speak of the particular, as concerns Mahomet, endeavouring to discover in his conduct a purpose, and in his words truth. Mahomet was born at Mecca, the sacred city of Arabia, in 569. This, the first fact in his career, is also the first in his defence. He imbibed in his birth the peculiarities of Arab character-its vehemence, its high imagination, its superstitious wonder. His early journeyings through the desert solitudes, added to his natural meditative tendency-to his turn of mind for religious speculation, gave occasion for the development of his Eastern fervour. His theologic thought will go far to explain the mysteries of his speech, his assumption of the prophet's mantle. For much that is strange in Mahomet, for all that has its origin in Eastern custom or in Eastern climate, we must hold his land, his kindred, and his age responsible. His fancies were often the nurture of his childhood, his morality the ethics to which he was born. *"of religious 66 The number," says P. D.,* sects at that time in Arabia equalled, or surpassed, their errors;" and their errors we may presume, were without number. Here, then, was Mahomet, with his rich intellect, his surpassing genius, left with no choice but a choice of errors. He looks otherward for the sustenance of his belief. His travels with the caravans had given him means of intercourse with Jews and Christians and the wise of all sects; it was the education of his mind and his heart. The perception he thus gained of the purity of ideal religion had its effect on the susceptible mind of the youthful Arab. He began to see God with unbandaged eyes; for the images that stood before him in the Kaaba no longer intercepted his gaze in the desert, or in the solitudes of Mount Hara whither he retired in frequent fits of abstraction, and from whence he returned, at the sedate and visionary age of forty, not as Mahomet the merchant, but as Mahomet the prophet of God, burning with religious zeal, eager to tear from the worship of the only true God the idolic imposture surrounding it. The restoration of religion, the transference of adoration from the material image to the spiritual conception of Godthis henceforth is his ruling passion, the mission of his remaining days. A spiritual religion-no idolatry-the one true God: these are the grand truths of Mahomet's doctrine, the truths for which he is remembered, for which he is praised, even to this day. Setting his heart to this work of revival and of purification, he communicates his * Ante, p. 291 |