his relations to God and the universe. The sopher Bolingbroke; its moralist, Addison; Reformation, the Puritan awakening, the its minstrel, Pope; its preacher, Atterbury. Whitfield and Wesley revival, are each so inwoven with the history of Britain, that without an estimate of them no true idea can be obtained of the national life. And then, too, there is the poetry of the period to be studied, in its connection with the development of intelligence, as it gives utterance to the sentiments of the period on nature and man. There is no period of historic importance without its poetry. The thoughts, the emotions, the desires, and the hopes of the people, find a medium of expression through the poet. The "Divina Commedia," of the wondrous Dante, opens European literature, represents the theology of the age, and gives expression to the yearnings of the Italian people for freedom from the spiritual tyranny of Rome; the prologue to the "Canterbury Tales" of Chaucer contains a description of a large company of guests,-priests, scholars, ladies, physicians, -who were seated at the table of the Tabard Inn, in Southwark, and who, doubtless, were taken from life by the poet; Dryden exhibited the feelings and reasonings of the king and his courtiers on the grave subjects of national policy, and in his "Absalom and Achitophell" vividly pourtrayed the history and characters of the time; and so through other periods of history, the poetry of the epoch must be studied, as the reflection of the thoughts, emotions, and wants of the people. Nor are the arts and sciences of the period to be overlooked, for they likewise influence the progress of the people. The power of the age on great men, and the influence of great men on the age, must also be observed, as they sum up nations and epochs. "Give me," says Cousin, "the series of great men, all the great men known, and I will produce for you the known history of the human race." This can only be done by the study of the thoughts and actions of those men, in their connection with the development of human intelligence. The history of the Crusades must be first studied in the life of Peter the Hermit; and the Reformation cannot be estimated without a knowledge of the life of Luther. Each age has its representative men. The century of religious indifference, which opened with Queen Anne's reign, had for its philo The student, therefore, in the study of any period or epoch of history, must discern the relation of history to other branches of knowledge, that he may be able to judge how far the historians of the periods he investigates have represented the life of humanity, in tracing the influences of philosophy, religion, art, and science, on the national life. From this study of the history of nations or epochs, what are the advantages to be derived? I. The mind is disciplined. As the faculties which we call attention, memory, imagination, will, judgment, and reflection, are only conventional forms of speech, it can only be said that we attend, remember, imagine, will, judge, or reflect; therefore the use of these terms only expresses the operations of the mind. As exercised in the study of history, they aid the discipline of the mind. The act of the mind most exercised in this study is judgment—that faculty by which we compare mental and material objects, in order to ascertain their relations, determine their use, and ascertain truth. Our knowledge of historical facts is derived from testimony. And in this species of evidence we have to consider— "I. Where the historian relates what he has himself seer. This is pure testimony, and must be judged of accordingly. "II. Where the historian relates contemporaneous events upon the testimony of others. The character of the witnesses must be tested, whether they have all the qualities of a perfect moral being. Further, we must take into account-1. The prejudices and antipathies of country, party, and sect. 2. The philosophical ability of the historian to investigate, compare, and deduce. 3. The time and attention bestowed on the work. "III. Where the historian depends for his information upon the writings of others, and upon national monuments, records, and antiquities. Here the most various and lofty qualifications are requisite. 1. All the qualities of a true witness. 2. Various and profound erudition, viz., a knowledge of languages, of science, of arts, of government, skill in antiquarian researches, and, above all, original, comprehensive, and penetrative genius as a philosopher. 3. Adequate ma terials. A history is entitled to belief in proportion as these particulars appear in its compilation."* These tests, exercised in historical investigations, discipline the judgment, in valuing the character and accomplishments of historians, and deducing conclusions from opposite testimonies; for the accuracy of our reasoning depends on our judgments, and our judgments depend on the accuracy of our comparisons, and our comparisons on the truth of our evidence. The difference between historical and philosophical reasoning is, that the former examines particulars, so as to form a full induction, whereas the latter consists in tracing generals. As testimony is the medium through which actual truths are converted into historical, the same certainty of truth is not obtained as that derived from the axioms of mathematics; so that where there seems likely to be least certainty, there the judgment is better exercised. minds of their heroes. By so doing, the judgment is exercised, in comparing differences of opinion, weighing conflicting evidence, so as to obtain a just opinion of the character and worth of the person. But before the mind will be equipped for such an exercise, a knowledge of the errors to which the judgment is liable will be indispensable. Lord Bacon informs us of the "idols of the intellect," or those sources of error to which the mind is liable. Erroneous judgments are denominated prejudices; they obscure our knowledge, and produce doubt in the mind instead of certainty. National partizanship, difference of religious belief, superior ability, influence the judgment, and often prevent the expression of an honest opinion. The Greeks considered the Persians barbarians. The Romans, in like manner, regarded with contempt the military character of the Carthaginians and Macedonians. Modern nations are more liberal in their opinions of other countries, yet it is difficult The study of the different estimates of to find that catholicity of spirit which diseminent historical persons, by distinguished dains local relations, and awards the palm authors, is of great use to the student of to superior excellence. And then, too, relihistory, as they exhibit the prejudices to gious belief appears to have much influenced which writers of history and biography are the judgment of our historians: Voltaire liable, and enforce the necessity of acquiring a regarded religion as the enslaver of humanity, knowledge of the causes which bias the judg- and believed that the first step in the emanment. Take, for example, the different esti- cipation of the human mind would be to mates of the character of Oliver Cromwell, two banish its priests, and destroy its temples; of which we select-Southey's and Carlyle's. Cibbon viewed religion through the preThe former thinks that Cromwell was both judices of his education, and read the story a fanatic and a political and religious hypo- of the Roman empire aright, save in respect crite, and that the death of Charles destroyed to Christianity; Lingard's Roman Catholic his happiness; the opinion of the latter is, prejudices and antipathies are frequently on the contrary, that he was neither a traitor manifested in his "History of England;" against Charles, nor an enemy of civil or Hume was essentially a sceptic, and wrote religious liberty. Sincerity and integrity libels oftener than fair estimates of Britain's are the characteristics of the Oliver Crom-worthies. But historians have all their prewell of Carlyle; fanaticism and hypocrisy judices, like Dr. Johnson, who, when reportthose of Southey. The biographies of Luther ing the debates, said, "he always took care by Michelet and D'Aubigné, in like manner, to give the Whig dogs the worst of it." show how different a portrait may be drawn of the same man. Besides, too, in this study of the estimates of historical persons, it is needful to investigate the sources of the biographers' knowledge, and observe whether they have traced the influences of rank, education, companions, and events, in moulding the character and developing the It will be plain, then, that if there is any one study more than another which requires a calm, deliberative judgment, it is historical investigation, and also that no kind of study is so fitted to produce such. Moreover, in this discipline of the mind, the habit of attention, on which memory so much depends for accuracy, is acquired; and the exercise of memory necessitates the formation of habits of classification and arrangement, to facilitate the retention of ideas, and aid in the use of that knowledge acquired | liberties are the victims of tyranny; but from previous research. Thus a rigid attention, a good memory, and an unprejudiced judgment, aid the student in thinking,-the object of all mental discipline, and the highest privilege which man possesses. The word "thinker" is so indiscriminately used, that it is difficult to know what that word means; but without attempting a definition, we do not hesitate to say that the true student of history must needs be a thinker, though he may not receive that appellation. The love of investigation after truth is one of the best aids to accurate thought. The desire that our judgments may be based on just comparisons, and our opinions be the result of thought, produces an excitement not easily chilled by difficulties, and which will not rest till certainty is attained. "Did the Almighty," says Lessing, "holding in his right hand 'Truth,' and in his left 'Search after truth,' deign to proffer me the one I might prefer; in all humility, but withbut hesitation, I should request 'Search after truth." The search after truth is the consequent of the love of truth, and thought requires both. II. We derive from the study of history a knowledge of our political rights. The different classes of society are so arranged, that there is a mutual dependence between each class. The rich cannot do without the poor, as the master cannot do without the servant. The relations of this dependence are better understood now than they ever were. Social distinctions imply social relations; and the sympathy which results from a knowledge of these relations binds society together. Christianity teaches the truth that all men are equal, yet recognizes the duties of the different positions of society. That there are anomalies in our social relations will not be denied; yet no truth is more immutable than this, that in God's sight all are equal, and from of old such has been recognized as Heaven's law. Its influence, too, has it not been exhibited in the history of nations in strange, significant ways? The study of this progress necessitates the acquirement of a knowledge of the principles of political science, and the observation of their manifestations in history, which has been termed the "school of politics." A people ignorant of their rights and the nations which possess this knowledge resist encroachments on their rights and liberties. History records the struggles of nations for their civil and religious rights, and the means by which they have been obtained or resisted. The student is therefore led to inquire into the functions and powers of governments, the origin of laws, the administration of justice, the divine right of kings, the protection of property, the representation of the people, the influence of knowledge, and the power of religion, that he may observe their effects on the condition of the people. Nations must either cease to exist, or advance from wrong to right. The progress, in some measure, depends on the intelligence of the people. There is a continual struggle between the government and public opinion, as there are laws to be modified, or grievances redressed; and as long as the proceedings of parliament occupy the attention of the people, an effectual control is exerted over them. The progress of the British nation from serfdom to freedom must therefore be studied in all its phases, to acquire a knowledge of the power used in this advancement. The possession of this knowledge will prove of great advantage, in demonstrating the impotency of physical force, and the superiority of moral power, in obtaining the possession of deprived rights or curtailed liberties. Had the laws of this progression been better understood by our working classes in the earlier part of this century, they would not have borne with the demagogues who fooled them, while preaching liberty. Ignorant of the conditions of progress, failure was inevitable. The rights of man are divided into two classes-natural and civil. Natural liberty is that freedom which man possesses independent of the state; civil liberty is action in accordance with the laws of the nation to which he belongs. The happiness of a nation depends, in a great degree, on its civil liberty; and history teaches us that freedom is the result of knowledge; ignorance is the stronghold of despotism. The social relations which subsist between man and society enables the student to disseminate the knowledge he has acquired from the study of history, and enforce the duty of the examination of its teachings as the surest guide to the proper use of the rights and liberties which the people possess. The object of governments being to promote the happiness of nations, laws and institutions are originated to promote that object; and as knowledge is disseminated, the laws are rescinded or improved to suit the progress of the nation. Reforms are the result of the intelligence of the people, as exemplified in the Reform Bill, the abolition of the corn laws, and the emancipation of the slaves. III. We learn from the study of history toleration of opinion. "Every species of intolerance," says Paley, "which enjoins suppression and silence, and every species of persecution which enforces such injunctions, is adverse to the progress of truth." The most intolerant are invariably the receivers of opinions at second-hand; not being truthseekers themselves, they cannot tolerate the opinions of those who are so, and by acting thus, violate their moral nature, and bring disgrace on the cause of truth. Action against the laws of our nature produces evil results. Intolerance, however, is not confined to the ignorant, for at the Reformation both Roman Catholics and Protestants inflicted punishments, as far as they had power and opportunity, upon those who called in question their creed. This persecution proceeds from the natural love of rule common to the human mind, and exists among all nations, all parties, and all sects. History in every period, from Socrates to Cardinal Wiseman, exhibits its evils. The duty of toleration is based on the scripture axiom, that we are to do unto others as we would wish others to do unto us. A state may adopt a religion to promote the happiness of the commonwealth, but it has no authority to coerce any individual whose understanding is not convinced of its truth, nor any power to introduce laws for burning heretics, as was done in the reign of Henry the Fourth, for suppressing the followers of Wickliffe, which spirit of persecution prevailed during successive reigns. Intolerance is the most intolerable of all things, for persecution can never alter opinion. A man subjected to torture may recant by word of mouth, and still retain his former beliefs. Galileo was imprisoned for the truth he discovered and announced, yet still believed that "the earth moves." Descartes was termed an atheist for saying that there are innate ideas, Locke for denying them. Intolerance proceeds on the error that belief, doubt, and disbelief, are voluntary acts, involving moral merit and demerit; but these acts are involuntary, and are therefore guiltless states of the mind. The understanding must be convinced before belief is produced in the mind. The only legitimate method of action, where so great differences of religious and political opinions prevail, is freedom of discussion. The prevalence of truth augments a nation's happiness, and free discussion promotes truth, for it induces habits of investigation, and the study of opposite opinions. The ultimate triumph of truth is proved from the experience of history. We therefore observe the folly of persecution, and the true method of action in promoting truth, and learn to tolerate the opinions of others, in the spirit of Coleridge's remark, "As far as opinions and not motives, principles and not men, are concerned, I neither am tolerant, nor wish to be regarded as such." The reign of intolerance, however, is not yet ended. There are still in existence various kinds of persecution, used by the narrow-minded against those who differ from the general opinion. This cannot be wondered at, as the individual who chimes in with the popular opinion is lauded, while the man who earnestly investigates a subject, and arrives at different conclusions, is treated with contempt. The experience of history teaches the lesson that freedom of conscience is the birthright of man; that persecution for opinions is intolerance; that intolerance retards the progress of truth; and that the progress of truth is promoted by toleration of opinion, united with freedom of discussion. "Toleration," says Leighton, "is an herb of spontaneous growth in the soil of indifference; but the weed has none of the virtues of the medicinal plant reared by humility in the garden of zeal." IV. The knowledge of history is an invaluable aid in travel. The application of science to modes of conveyance has opened up a new source of enjoyment to the people of Britain, by the facility and cheapness of travel. Other nations may surpass us in the lone grandeur of the ruins of ancient cities; but in associations connected with great events and persons our country is unsurpassed. It is natural to suppose that places of historical interest will be visited, but then the enjoyment of these visits will just be in proportion to the knowledge which the visitors possess. The knowledge of history in this aspect is of great advantage, either collectively or to individuals. What the various rock formations are to the geologist, are remarkable places to the student of history. And as the past history of the earth can only be known by the study of its materials, so the remarkable events, which have taken place in connection with the history of nations, can only be understood and appreciated by personal examination. The events recorded on the historian's page are rendered more intelligible by a visit to the places where they happened. The fields of Marston-moor or Bannockburn have a nobler interest to the student from their historical associations-as the former recalls the defeat of Prince Rupert and the royalists by Cromwell, as the latter reminds him of the defeat of Edward by Bruce. When we visit places of historic interest, we seem to be contemporaries of the events then transacted. We are transported 541 years back, to the field of Bannockburn. We can almost fancy that we are present on that eventful morning. We behold the armies drawn up in battle array, and advancing to conflict. We hear the din of blows, the clang of arms, the shouting and the war-cries; we see the blood-stained banners streaming | in the wind; the ground covered with broken lances and helmets and wounded soldiers; and listen to the moans of the dying. The eye quivers as it watches the conflict, and sees the disjointed squadrons quit the field, and the unrelenting mercy with which the fugitives are pursued. Or we visit the abbey of Holyrood, look on its roofless walls, walk with awe over its dust of centuries, examine the inscriptions of its tombs, and think of the changes of changeless time. As we pass the mouldering gateway of the ancient fortress, we recall the days of pomp and chivalry, when helmed knights and belted squires rode forth to fight for love, or die in the mad game of war. As the geologist reads a lesson in each discovered fossil of the past condition of the earth, so the student, in the study of the fossils of history, the coins, the raiment, the sculpture, the furniture and the weapons of war, preserved in our museums,-discovers knowledge of the manners, dress, arts, and kings, illustrative of the history of man. What vast interest, then, have places where remarkable events happened, or men of genius resided, to the student of history. The streets of cities, and the solitary moor; the palaces of kings, and the dwellings of the humble; the ancient college, and the hall of justice; the venerable portrait, and the monument of stone; the ruined abbey, and the fortified castle, recall the past, and lead to the examination of their historical associations. The transactions of to-day will be history to-morrow. The monument erected to a warrior in 1855 will lead the thoughtful observer of a succeeding century to examine the life of the man whose memory that monument perpetuates, as the paintings of Raphael, Murillo, and Claude, lead to the study of the schools of art. V. History, too, may be regarded as the world's gallery of great men, for, as Thomas Carlyle remarks, "Universal history is at bottom the history of the great men who have worked here." All nations, whether ancient or modern, have had their great men; and whatever period of time is studied, they will form one, if not the main, topic of attraction. All kinds of character will be exhibited—the serious, the odd, the learned, the humorous, the benevolent, the sad; the priest, the poet, the warrior, the philosopher, the statesman, the king; and will form grave subjects of study of the manifold phases of human life. Humanity will be represented in its varied guises, and under different influences, having more or less attraction as the sympathies are excited. The lessons of wisdom taught will vary with the sympathies of the student. The patriot's patriotism will be intensified by the lives of Wallace and Tell; the warrior's enthusiasm excited by the memoirs of Cæsar and Wellington; the poet's love purified by the study of Dante and Shakspere. There will be studies of character for the most varied tastes in this great gallery of men and women. There will also be a distinction drawn between the "world's heroes and God's heroes"-the "cloud of witnesses" for truth, the martyrs, and the sumless multitude of evil workers. They will suggest thoughts, sad and solemn, |
