son of David, who was persecuted by Saul, was the richest," &c. In these two sentences who is similarly placed, but must be referred (for the sake of historical accuracy) to two different persons-in the first to Solomon, in the second to David. To avoid such doubtful construction, it is necessary to change the arrangement and construction in the first sentence, thus: "Solomon, the son of David, and the builder of the temple of Je rusalem, was the richest," &c. The second sentence will be made clear by being altered thus: "Solomon, whose father David was persecuted by Saul, was the richest," &c.

The pronouns he and his are often used ambiguously. Rather than allow ambiguity, the noun should be used instead of the pronoun, for the repetition of a word, when necessary to clearness, is not objectionable.

Ex. 1.-"Lysias promised to his father never to abandon his friends." Here it is doubtful whether the friends of Lysias, or of the father of Lysias, are intended. Such sentences may be rendered clear by using the dramatic form of narrative: thus, "Lysias promised his father in these words, I will never abandon my friends ;" or, if the friends of the father were intended, "I will never abandon thy friends." The sentiment may also be expressed in this way: "Lysias, speaking of his friends, promised to his father never to abandon them;" or, "Lysias, speaking of his father's friends, promised to his father never to abandon them."

Ex. 2.-"We said to my lord, The lad cannot leave his father; for if he should leave his father, his father would die." Here ambiguity is avoided by the repetition of the words his father. Had the pronoun been used in the latter part of the sentence, it would have been doubtful whether the son or the father was intended; thus, "If he should leave his father, he would die."

Adjectives, unless adjoined to the nouns to which they belong, create ambiguity; thus,

"God heapeth favors on his servants ever liberal and faithful." If it was intended to describe God as liberal and faithful, the form of the sentence should be," God, ever liberal and faithful, heapeth favors on his servants." If, on the other hand, it was the design of the writer thus to characterize the servants, the form should be, "God heapeth favors on his ever liberal and faithful servants."

LESSON LXXXIV.

CLEARNESS IN THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.

If the equivocal and ambiguous should be avoided, much more should the unintelligible be avoided.

This style of sentences may arise, either from confusion of thought, and from imperfect conceptions in the mind of the writer; or from an affectation of originality, profundity, sublimity, or exquisite beauty of expression, or form of sentence, or from want of meaning.

There are various kinds of nonsense, ranged by Dr. Campbell under the heads of puerile, learned, profound, and marvellous.

The puerile is exemplified when a writer employs a specious flow of words, consisting of synonymous terms and identical propositions, well-turned periods, and high-sounding words; but at the same time using those words so indefinitely that either no intelligible meaning is expressed, or almost any meaning may be deduced from them. This has been already referred to, and illustrated, under Rule II., on "Propriety of Expression."

The learned nonsense is fully exemplified in the scholastic theology of the middle ages. Dr. Campbell speaks of a preacher he had heard of, who, desirous to appear very profound, and to make observations on the commonest subjects which had never occurred to anybody before, remarked, as an instance of the goodness of Providence, that the moments of time come successively, and not simultaneously or together; which last method of coming would, he said, occasion infinite confusion in the world.

Metaphysical philosophy also can furnish innumerable specimens of learned nonsense.

The profound species of nonsense may often be seen in writings on government and political affairs, wherein the merest nothing is presented with solemn air, as the most profound secret, and the claborate result of deep reflection.

The marvellous is that which astonishes and confounds by its bold affirmations, contradicting the plainest dictates of commonsense, and involving a gross absurdity. This is seen in treatises on the principles of some of the fine arts; it is to be found also in the poets. Thus, in one of Dryden's plays, a lover is represented as saying:

66 My wound is great, because it is so small."

The Duke of Buckingham, hearing the above line, exclaimed at once,

"It would be greater, were it none at all !"

thus exposing its nonsense.

LESSON LXXXV.

UNITY IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES AND PARA

GRAPHS.

In the construction of sentences.

A correct and well-constructed sentence has a oneness of meaning and form of expression; it contains but one prominent idea or leading proposition, whether it be a sentiment, proposition, or fact, and all its parts or members have a common connection with it. To preserve the unity of the meaning and construction of a sentence, observe the following Rules:

RULE I.-The scene of action and the agents introduced should be continued unchanged in each sentence.

The introduction of a variety of circumstances and agents into a single sentence renders it difficult of comprehension, and is at variance with that primary rule for the construction of a correct sentence, which requires that it should make only one distinct impression on the mind, employing but one subject or nominative from its beginning to its close. Various and unlike objects or ideas grouped together in a single sentence, not only destroy its unity,

but they present a confused image to the mind. The thoughts introduced into a sentence must be so closely related as not to distract our attention. Hence,

RULE II.-Never crowd into one sentence things which have so little connection and mutual dependence, that they may admit of being presented in two or more sentences.

Superfluous relative words and clauses impair the unity that is desirable in the structure of a sentence.

RULE III.-The insertion of parentheses, unless very short, within the limits of a sentence, should be avoided, as being often injurious to its unity and beauty.

RULE IV.-All extraneous observations at the close of a sentence must be omitted.

When a sentence is complete, and we naturally expect that a new sentence will commence, no additional circumstance should be appended.

RULE V.-The unity of a sentence requires that it be brought to a full and complete close; otherwise an entire or perfect sentence is not formed.

As to unity in the construction of paragraphs, it is required that different topics, those having no necessary relation to, or dependence on each other, should occupy different paragraphs, or larger divisions of the thoughts expressed.

Abrupt and short sentences should not too frequently appear in succession; for, although they appear to give energy to style, yet they possess less dignity, and convey our ideas less clearly to the mind, than longer sentences carefully constructed. They also make a less forcible impression. Take the following example:

"Nor let any church of our order take upon itself, as a necessary part of its character, the form of aggression. This is often said to belong to it. If the calm and consistent presentation of principles be the strong assault upon their opposites, then such must be our offence. But it is no more. We seek not to condemn. To maintain the right is our duty. Against what may be wrong, there may be in this an implicit reb ike. Yet it is not for us to trouble other churches."

EXERCISES.

Construct and write the following sentences in such a manner as to comply with the rules of unity:

Archbishop Tillotson, who died in this year, was exceedingly beloved by King William and Queen Mary, who nominated Dr. Tennison, bishop of Lincoln, to succeed him.

The sun approaching melts the snow, and breaks the icy fetters of the main, where vast sea-monsters pierce through floating islands, with arms which can withstand the crystal rock; while others, that of themselves seem great as islands, are, by the bulk alone, armed against all but man, whose superiority over creatures of such stupendous size and power, should make him mindful of his privilege of reason, and force him to adore the great Composer of these wondrous frames, and the Author of his own superior wisdom.

LESSON LXXXVI.

STRENGTH AND VIVACITY OF EXPRESSION.

Strength signifies the power of arresting attention and of forcibly influencing the mind. The strength of a sentence denotes such a selection and arrangement of its words and members as will produce a clear, and strong, and vivid impression of the writer's meaning.

RULE I.-Be concise; employ no redundant words or members.

Verbosity, and the multiplying of clauses in a sentence, tend to enfeeble its force. Mere epithets, and expletives, and the mention of unnecessary circumstances, are, therefore, to be avoided. It may be adopted as a maxim, that any words which are superfluous detract from the force of a sentence. As every word ought to prosent a new idea, so every member ought to contain a new thought.

RULE II.-Place the principal word or words in a con