abolished in 1880, and the finances of the university were put on It is not easy to determine whether the book is all from the a firm basis by the grant of a state tax of one-tenth of a mill. same author. On the one hand, it may be said that one general Under the presidency (1887-1892) of Thomas Chrowder Chamber- theme-the salvation and final prosperity of the righteous-is lin (b. 1843), a graduate of Beloit College and a member of visible throughout the work, that God is everywhere represented the U.S. Geological Survey, the university attendance grew from as the supreme moral governor of the world, and that the con500 to 1000 students, and buildings were erected for the college ception of immortality is found in both parts; the second part, of law, dairy school and science hall. Under President Charles though differing in form from the first, may be regarded as the Kendall Adams (1835-1902), who was a graduate of the univer- historical illustration of the principles set forth in the latter. sity of Michigan, where as professor of history he had introduced On the other hand, it must be admitted that the points of view in 1869-1870 the German method of "seminar" study and in the two parts are very different: the philosophical conception research, and who had just resigned the presidency (1885-1892) of wisdom and the general Greek colouring, so prominent in of Cornell University, the enrolment of the university increased the first part, are quite lacking in the second (x. 1-xi. 1 being from 1000 in 1892 to 2600 in 1901, and the growth of the graduate regarded as a transition or connecting section inserted by an school was particularly notable. Under Charles Richard Van-editor). While the first has the form of a treatise, the second is an Hise, who was the first alumnus to become president and who address to God; the first, though it has the Jewish people in succeeded President Adams in 1904, the growth of the university mind, does not refer to them by name except incidentally in continued, and its activities were constantly enlarged and the Solomon's prayer; the second is wholly devoted to the Jewish scope of its work was widened. national experiences (this is true even of the section on idolatry). It is in the second that we have the finer ethical conception of God as father and saviour of all men, lover of souls, merciful in his dealings with the wicked-in the first part it is his justice that is emphasized; the hope of immortality is prominent in the first, but is mentioned only once (in xv. 3) in the second. The two parts are distinguished by difference of style; the Hebrew principle of parallelism of clauses is employed far more in the first than in the second, which has a number of plain prose passages, and is also rich in uncommon compound terms. In view of these differences there is ground for holding that the second part is a separate production which has been united with the first by an editor, an historical haggadic sketch, a midrash, full of imaginative additions to the Biblical narrative, and enlivened by many striking ethical reflections. The question, however, may be left undecided.

See S. H. Carpenter. A Historical Sketch of the University of Wisconsin from 1849 to 1876 (Madison, 1876), and R. G. Thwaites, The University of Wisconsin, its History and its Alumni (Ibid., 1900). WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. 2opia Zadwuwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae), an apocryphal book of the "Wisdom Literature" (q.v.), the most brilliant production of pre-Christian Hebrew philosophical thought, remarkable both for the elevation of its ideas and for the splendour of its diction. It divides itself naturally, by its contents, into two parts, in one of which the theme is righteousness and wisdom, in the other the early fortunes of the Israelite people considered as a righteous nation beloved by God.

The first part (ch. i.-ix.) falls also into two divisions, the first (i.-v.) dwelling on the contrast between the righteous and the wicked, the second (vi.-ix.) setting forth the glories of wisdom. After an exhortation to the judges of the earth to put away evil counsels and thus avoid death, the author declares that God has made no kingdom of death on the earth, but ungodly men have made a covenant with it: certain sceptics (probably both Gentile and Jewish) holding this life to be brief and without a future, give themselves up to sensuality and oppress the poor and the righteous; but God created man to be immortal (ii. 23), and there will be compensation and retribution in the future: the good will rule (on earth), the wicked will be hurled down to destruction, though they seem now to flourish with long life and abundance of children (ii.-v.). At this point Solomon is introduced, and from the following section (vi.-ix.) the book seems to have taken its title. Solomon reminds kings and rulers that they will be held to strict account by God, and, urging them to learn wisdom from his words, proceeds to give his own experience: devoting himself from his youth to the pursuit of wisdom he had found her to be a treasure that never failed, the source and embodiment of all that is most excellent and beautiful in the world-through her he looks to obtain influence over men and immortality, and he concludes with a prayer that God would send her out of his holy heavens to be his companion and guide.

Both parts of the book ignore the Jewish sacrificial cult. Sacrifices are not mentioned at all; a passing reference to the temple is put into Solomon's mouth (ix. 8). Moses is described (xi. 1) not as the great lawgiver, but as the holy prophet through whom the works of the people were prospered. (It may be noted, as an illustration of the allusive style of the book, that, though a number of men are spoken of, not one of them is mentioned by name; in iv. 10-14, which is an expansion of Gen. v. 24, the reader is left to recognize Enoch from his knowledge of the Biblical narrative.) In the second part of the book there is no expression of "messianic" hope; in the first part the picture of the national future agrees in general (if its expressions are to be taken literally) with that given in the book of Daniel: the Jews are to have dominion over the peoples (iii. 8), and to receive from the Lord's hand the diadem of beauty (v. 16), but there is no mention of particular nations. The historical review in the second part is coloured by a bitter hatred of the ancient Egyptians; whether this springs from resentment of the former sufferings of the Israelites or is meant as an allusion to the circumstances of the author's own time it is hardly possible to say.

its treatment of the subject is somewhat vague. On the basis of The book appears to teach individual ethical immortality, though

The second part of the book (x.-xix.) connects itself formally with the first by a suminary description of the rôle of wisdom in the carly times: she directed and preserved the fathers from Adam to Moses (x. 1-xi. 1). From this point, however, nothing is said of wisdom-Gen. i.-iii. it is said (ii. 23 f.) that God created man for immortality the rest of the book is a philosophical and imaginative narrative of Israelite affairs from the Egyptian oppression to the settlement in Canaan. A brief description of how the Egyptians were punished through the very things with which they sinned (though the punishment was not fatal, for God loves all things that exist), and how judgments on the Canaanites were executed gradually (so as to give them time to repent), is followed by a dissertation on the origin, various forms, absurdity and results of polytheism and idolatry (xii-xv.): the worship of natural objects is said to be less blameworthy than the worship of images-this latter, arising from the desire to honour dead children and living kings (the Euhemeristic theory), is inherently absurd, and led to all sorts of moral depravity. In the four last chapters the author, returning to the history, gives a detailed account of the provision made for the Israelites in the wilderness and of the pains and terrors with which the Egyptians were plagued.

1 President VanHise (b. 1857) graduated at the university of Wisconsin in 1879, became instructor in geology there in 1883, in 1897 became consulting geologist of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, and in 1900 became geologist in charge of the Division of Pre-Cambrian and Metamorphic Geology, U.S. Geological Survey. He wrote Correlation Papers-Archaean and Algonkian (1892), Some Principles Controlling the Deposition of Ores (1901). A Treatise on Metamorphism (1903) and several works with other authors on the different iron regions of Michigan.

(that is, apparently, on earth) and made him an image of his own being, but through the envy of the devil death came into the world, yet (iii. 1-4) the souls of the righteous are in the hand of God, and, though they seem to die, their hope is full of immortality. The description, however, appears to glide into the conception of national immortality (iii. 8, v. 16), especially in the fine sorites in vi. 17-20: the beginning of wisdom is desire for instruction, and devoted regard to instruction is love, and love is observance of her laws, and obedience to her laws is assurance of incorruption, and incorruption brings us near to God, and therefore desire for wisdom leads to a kingdom (but the nature of the kingdom is not stated). The individualistic view is expressed in xv. 3: the knowledge of God's power (that is, a righteous life) is the root of immortality. This passage appears to exclude the wicked, who, however, are said (iv. 20) to be punished future makes it difficult to determine precisely the thought of the hereafter. The figurative nature of the language respecting the book on this point; but it seems to contemplate continued existence hereafter for both righteous and wicked, and rewards and punishments allotted on the basis of moral character. Angels are not mentioned; but the serpent of Gen. iii. is, for the first time in literature, identified with the devil ("Diabolos," ii. 24, the Greek translation of the Hebrew "Satan"); the rôle assigned him (envy) is similar to that expressed in "Secrets of Enoch. xxxi. 3-6; he is here introduced to account for the fact of death in the world. In iii. 4 the writer, in his polemic against the prosperous ungodly men of his time, denies that death, short life and lack of children are to be considered 1a

misfortunes for the righteous-over against these things the possession | Wisdom Books did not arise till a change had come over the of wisdom is declared to be the supreme good. The ethical standard national fortunes and life. The firm establishment of the doctrine of the book is high except in the bitterness displayed towards the "wicked," that is, the enemies of the Jews. The only occurrence in old Jewish literature (except in Ecclus. xiv. 2) of a word for "conscience" is found in xvii. 11 (σuveldnos): wickedness is timorous under the condemnation of conscience (the same thought in Prov. xxviii. 1). The book is absolutely monotheistic, and the character ascribed to the deity is ethically pure with the exception mentioned

above.

The style shows that the book was written in Greek, though naturally it contains Hebraisms. The author of the first part was in all probability an Alexandrian Jew; nothing further is known of him; and this is true of the author of the second part, if that be a separate production. As to the date, the decided Greek colouring (the conception of wisdom, the list of Stoic virtues, viii. 7, the idea of pre-existence, viii. 20, and the ethical conception of the future life) points to a time not earlier than the 1st century B.C., while the fact that the history is not allegorized suggests priority to Philo; probably the work was composed late in the 1st century B.C. (this date would agree with the social situation described). Its exclusion from the Jewish Canon of Scripture resulted naturally from its Alexandrian. thought and from the fact that it was written in Greek. It was used, however, by New Testament writers (vii. 22 f., Jas. iii. 17, vii. 26; Heb. i. 2 f., ix. 15; 2 Cor. v. 1-4, xi. 23; Acts xvii. 30, xiii. 1-5, xiv. 22-26; Rom. i. 18-32, xvi. 7; 1 Tim. iv. 10), and is quoted freely by Patristic and later authors, generally as inspired. It was recognized as canonical by the council of Trent, but is not so regarded by Protestants.

of practical monotheism happened to coincide in time with the
destruction of the national political life (in the 6th century B.C).
At the moment when this doctrine had come to be generally
accepted by the thinking part of the nation, the Jews found
themselves dispersed among foreign communities, and from
that time were a subject people environed by aliens, Babylonian,
Persian and Greek. The prophetic office ceased to exist when
its work was done, and part of the intellectual energy of the
people was thus set free for other tasks than the establishment
of theistic dogma. The ritual law was substantially completed
by the end of the 5th century B.C.; it became the object of
study, and thus arose a class of scholars, among whom were
some who, under the influence of the general culture of the time,
native and foreign, pushed their investigations beyond the
limits of the national law and became students and critics of
life. These last came to form a separate class, though without
formal organization. There was a tradition of learning (Job
viii. 8, xv. 10)-the results of observation and experience were
handed down orally. In the 2nd century B.C., about the time
when the synagogue took shape, there were established schools
presided over by eminent sages, in which along with instruction
in the law much was said concerning the general conduct of
life (see PIRKE ABOTH). The social unification produced by
the conquests of Alexander brought the Jews into intimate
relations with Greek thought. It may be inferred from Ben-
Sira's statements (Ecclus. xxxix. 1-11) that it was the custom
for scholars to travel abroad and, like the scholars of medieval
Europe, to increase their knowledge by personal association with
wise men throughout the world. Jews seem to have entered
eagerly into the larger intellectual life of the last three centuries
before the beginning of our era. For some the influence of this
association was of a general nature, merely modifying their
conception of the moral life; others adopted to a greater or
less extent some of the peculiar ideas of the current systems of

LITERATURE.-The Greek text is given in O. F. Fritzsche, Lib.
Apocr. Vet. Test. (1871); W. J. Deane, Bk. of Wisd. (1881); H. B.
Swete, Old Test. in Grk. (1st ed., 1891; 2nd ed., 1897; Eng. trans. in
Deanc, 1881); W. R. Churton, Uncan. and Apocr. Script. (1884);
C. J. Ball, Variorum Apocr. (1892); Revised Vers. of Apocr. (1895).
Introductions and Comms.: C. L. W. Grimm in Kurzgef. Exeg.
Hdbch. z. d. Apocr. d. A. T. (1860); E. C. Bissell in Lange-Schaff
(1860); W. J. Deane (1881); F. W. Farrar in Wace's Apocr. (1888);
Ed. Reuss, French ed. (1878), Ger. ed. (1894); E. Schürer, Jew.
People (Eng. trans., 1891); C. Siegfried in Kautzsch, Apocr. (1900);
Tony André, Les Apocr. (1903). See also the articles in Herzog-philosophy. Scholars were held in honour in those days by
Hauck's Realencyclopädie; Hastings, Dict. Bible; Cheyne and
Black, Encycl. Bibl.
(C. H. T.*)

WISDOM LITERATURE, the name applied to the body of Old Testament and Apocryphal writings that contain the philosophical thought of the later pre-Christian Judaism. Old Semitic philosophy was a science not of ontology in the modern sense of the term, but of practical life. For the Greeks "love of wisdom" involved inquiry into the basis and origin of things; the Hebrew "wisdom "" was the capacity so to order life as to get out of it the greatest possible good. Though the early Hebrews (of the time before the 5th century B.C.) must have reflected on life, there is no trace of such reflection, of a systematic sort, in their extant literature. "Wise men "" are distrusted and opposed by the prophets. The latter were concerned only with the maintenance of the sole worship of Yahweh and of social morality. This was the task of the early Hebrew thinkers, and to it a large part of the higher energy of the nation was devoted. The external law given, as was believed, by the God of Israel, was held to be the sufficient guide of life, and everything that looked like reliance

on human wisdom was regarded as disloyalty to the Divine Lawgiver. While the priests developed the sacrificial ritual, it was the prophets that represented the theocratic element of the national life-they devoted themselves to their task with noteworthy persistence and ability, and their efforts were crowned with success; but their virtue of singlemindedness carried with it the defect of narrowness-they despised all peoples and all countries but their own, and were intolerant of opinions, held by their fellow-citizens, that were not wholly in accordance with their own principles.

The reports of the earlier wise men, men of practical sagacity in political and social affairs, have come to us from unfriendly sources; it is quite possible that among them were some who took interest in life for its own sake, and reflected on its human moral basis. But, if this was so, no record of their reflections has been preserved. The class of sages to whom we owe the

princes and people, and Ben-Sira frankly adduces this fact as one of the great advantages of the pursuit of wisdom. It was in cities that the study of life and philosophy was best carried es. and it is chiefly with city life that Jewish wisdom deals.

The extant writings of the Jewish sages are contained in the books of Job, Proverbs, Psalms, Ben-Sira, Tobit, Ecclesiastes Wisdom of Solomon, 4th Maccabees, to which may be added the first chapter of Pirke Aboth (a Talmudic tract giving, probably, pre-Christian, material). Of these Job, Pss. xlix., lxxiii, xcii. 6-8 (5-7), Eccles., Wisdom, are discussions of the moral government of the world; Prov., Pss. xxxvii., cxix., Ben-Sira, Tob. iv, xii. 7-11, Pirke, are manuals of conduct, and 4th Maccab treats of the autonomy of reason in the moral life; Pss. viii. xix. 2-7 (1-6), xxix. 3-10, xc. 1-12, cvii. 17-32, cxxxix., cxliv. 3 E., cxlvii. 8 f. are reflections on man and physical nature (cf. the Yahweh addresses in Job, and Ecclus. xlii. 15-xliii. 33' Sceptical views are expressed in Job, Prov. xxx. 2-4 (Agur), Eccles.; the rest take the current orthodox position.

the prophetic and legal Hebraism, they do not break with the
Though the intellectual world of the sages is different from that of
fundamental Jewish theistic and ethical creeds. Their monotheisn
remains Semitic-even in their conception of the cosmogonic an
illuminating function of Wisdom they regard God as standing c
the world of physical nature and man, and do not grasp or accept the
idea of the identity of the human and the divine; there is tos a
sharp distinction between their general theistic position and that để
Greek philosophy. They retain the old high standard of mora
and in some instances go beyond it, as in the injunctions to be kind
to enemies (Prov. xxv. 21 f.) and to do to no man what is hateful to
one's self (Tob. iv. 15); in these finer maxims they doubtless repre
sent the general ethical advance of the time.

They differ from the older writers in practically ignoring the physical supernatural-that is, though they regard the miracles et the ancient times (referred to particularly in Wisdom xvi..xix.) 1 historical facts, they say nothing of a miraculous element in the late of their own time. Angels occur only in Job and Tobit, and there in noteworthy characters: in Job they are beings whom God charges with folly (iv. 18), or they are mediators between God and man

he conceived the idea of a union, and after a campaign lasting | Oxford converts (1845 and later) added considerably to Wisea quarter of a century the Union of American Hebrew Congrega- man's responsibilities, as many of them found themselves wholly tions was founded (1873) in Cincinnati. As a corollary of this without means, while the old Catholic body looked on the newhe founded in 1875 the "Hebrew Union College" in the same comers with distrust. It was by his advice that Newman and his city, and this institution has since trained a large number of companions spent some time in Rome before undertaking clerical the rabbis of America. Wise also organized various general work in England. Shortly after the accession of Pius IX. assemblies of rabbis, and in 1889 established the Central Con- Wiseman was appointed temporarily vicar-apostolic of the ference of American Rabbis. He was the first to introduce London district, the appointment becoming permanent in family pews in synagogues, and in many other ways" occidental- February 1849. On his arrival from Rome in 1847 he acted ized" Jewish worship. as informal diplomatic envoy from the pope, to ascertain from See D. Philipson, The Reform Movement in Judaism (1907). (I. A.) the government what support England was likely to give in WISEMAN, NICHOLAS PATRICK STEPHEN (1802-1865), carrying out the liberal policy with which Pius inaugurated his English cardinal, was born at Seville on the 2nd of August 1802, reign. In response Lord Minto was sent to Rome as "an authentic the child of Anglo-Irish parents recently settled in Spain for organ of the British Government," but the policy in question business purposes. On his father's death in 1805 he was brought proved abortive. Residing in London in Golden Square, Wiseman to Waterford, and in 1810 he was sent to Ushaw College, near threw himself into his new duties with many-sided activity, Durham, where he was educated until the age of sixteen, when working especially for the reclamation of Catholic criminals and he proceeded to the English College in Rome, reopened in 1818 for the restoration of the lapsed poor to the practice of their after having been closed by the Revolution for twenty years. religion. He was zealous for the establishment of religious He graduated doctor of theology with distinction in 1825, and communities, both of men and women, and for the holding of was ordained priest in the following year. He was apppointed retreats and missions. He preached (4th July 1848) at the vice-rector of the English College in 1827, and rector in 1828 opening of St George's, Southwark, an occasion unique in when not yet twenty-six years of age. This office he held until England since the Reformation, 14 bishops and 240 priests being 1840. From the first a devoted student and antiquary, he present, and six religious orders of men being represented. The devoted much time to the examination of oriental MSS. in the progress of Catholicism was undeniable, but yet Wiseman found Vatican library, and a first volume, entitled Horae Syriacae, himself steadily opposed by a minority among his own clergy, published in 1827, gave promise of a great scholar. Leo XII. who disliked his Ultramontane ideas, his "Romanizing and inapppointed him curator of the Arabic MSS. in the Vatican, and novating zeal," especially in regard to the introduction of sacred professor of oriental languages in the Roman university. At images into the churches and the use of devotions to the Blessed this date he had close relations, personal and by correspondence, Virgin and the Blessed Sacrament, hitherto unknown among with Mai, Bunsen, Burgess (bishop of Salisbury), Tholuck and English Catholics. In July 1850 he heard of the pope's intention Kluge. His student life was, however, broken by the pope's to create him a cardinal, and he took this to mean that he was command to preach to the English in Rome; and a course of his to be permanently recalled to Rome. But on his arrival there lectures, On the Connexion between Science and Revealed Religion, he ascertained that a part of the pope's plan for restoring a deservedly attracted much attention, his general thesis being that diocesan hierarchy in England was that he himself should return whereas scientific teaching has repeatedly been thought to to England as cardinal and archbishop of Westminster. The disprove Christian doctrine, further investigation has shown papal brief establishing the hierarchy was dated 29th September that a reconstruction is possible. He visited England in 1835-1850, and on 7th October Wiseman wrote a pastoral, dated 1836, and delivered lectures on the principles and main doctrines "from out of the Flaminian Gate "-a form diplomatically of Roman Catholicism in the Sardinian Chapel, Lincoln's Inn correct, but of bombastic tone for Protestant ears-in which Fields, and in the church at Moorfields, now pulled down. he spoke enthusiastically, if also a little pompously, of the Their effect was considerable; and at Pusey's request Newman "restoration of Catholic England to its orbit in the ecclesiastical reviewed them in the British Critic (December 1836), treating firmament." Wiseman travelled slowly to England, round by them for the most part with sympathy as a triumph over popular Vienna; and when he reached London (11th November) the Protestantism. To another critic, who had taken occasion to whole country was ablaze with indignation at the "papal point out the resemblance between Catholic and pagan cere- aggression," which was misunderstood to imply a new and monies, Wiseman replied, boldly admitting the likeness, and unjustifiable claim to territorial rule. Some indeed feared that maintaining that it could be shown equally well to exist between his life was endangered by the violence of popular feeling. But Christian and heathen doctrines. In 1836 he founded the Wiseman displayed calmness and courage, and immediately Dublin Review, partly to infuse into the lethargic English Catholics penned an admirable Appeal to the English People (a pamphlet of higher ideals of their own religion and some enthusiasm for the over 30 pages), in which he explained the nature of the pope's papacy, and partly to enable him to deal with the progress of the action, and argued that the admitted principle of toleration Oxford Movement, in which he was keenly interested. At this included leave to establish a diocesan hierarchy; and in his candate he was already distinguished as an accomplished scholar cluding paragraphs he effectively contrasted that dominion and critic, able to converse fluently in half-a-dozen languages, over Westminster, which he was taunted with claiming, with his and well informed on most questions of scientific, artistic or duties towards the poor Catholics resident there, with which alone antiquarian interest. In the winter of 1838 he was visited in he was really concerned. A course of lectures at St George's, Rome by Macaulay, Manning and Gladstone. An article by Southwark, further moderated the storm. In July 1852 be prehim on the Donatist schism appearing in the Dublin Review in sided at Oscott over the first provincial synod of Westminster at July 1839 made a great impression in Oxford, Newman and others which Newman preached his sermon on the "Second Spring "; seeing the force of the analogy between Donatists and Anglicans. and at this date Wiseman's dream of the rapid conversion of Some words he quoted from St Augustine influenced Newman pro- England to the ancient faith seemed not incapable of realizaties. foundly: Quapropter securus, judicat orbis terrarum bonos But many difficulties with his own people shortly beset his path, non esse qui se dividunt ab orbe terrarum." And preaching at due largely to the suspicions aroused by his evident preference the opening of St Mary's church, Derby, in the same year, for the ardent Roman zeal of the converts, and especially al he anticipated Newman's argument on religious development, Manning, to the dull and cautious formalism of the old Catholics. published six years later. In 1840 he was consecrated bishop, The year 1854 was marked by his presence in Rome at the and sent to England as coadjutor to Bishop Walsh, vicar-apostolic definition of the dogma of the immaculate conception of the of the Central district, and was also appointed president of Oscott Blessed Virgin (8th December), and by the publication of his College near Birmingham. Oscott, under his presidency, became historical romance, Fabiola, a tale of the Church of the Cataa centre for English Catholics, where he was also visited by many combs, which had a very wide circulation and was translated into Minguished men, including foreigners and non-Catholics. The ten languages. In 1855 Wiseman applied for a coadjutor, and