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the old Lateran Palace, Rome, Scriptural subjects seem to be typical of those which were condemned by Anatolian and Syrian fathers of the Christian church as early as in the late 4th century, and Asterius, bishop of Amasus, in denouncing the luxury of the rich in flaunting themselves in such inappropriately decorated silks, has left a most useful description of the subjects decorating them. A scheme long maintained in Syrian and Byzantine patterns was that of repeated roundels, within which other than scriptural subjects were wrought, e.g. hunters on horseback (as in fig. 33), fantastic animals and birds, singly or in pairs, confronting one another or back B

framing, composed of animals, birds and the like, formally treated and repeated vertically and horizontally, as in fig. 36, which is from a silk and gold thread shuttle-weaving classified as Byzantine of the 11th century manufacture. But this style of composition also occurs in a Sassanian or Syrian silk of the 5th century at Le Mans, and again in the Cope of St Maxim at Chinon, which is powdered with panthers. Conventional eagles (reminiscent perhaps of the Roman Eagle), with scale patterns on their breasts and wings, are woven in the wrappings reputed to have been given by the Empress Placidia for the corpse of St Germain (448) preserved at the church of St D

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Eusebius at Auxerre. Some likeness in style may be detected between these latter and a fragment of one of the wrappings of St Cuthbert (d. 688) at Durham, though in this case the elaborate ornamentation is set within a roundel. Prior to the discovery of woven silks in the Akhmin cemeteries, the periods to which tradition and association had ascribed the Auxerre and Durham specimens were considered too early; but there now seems to be far less reason to question that ascription. Fig. 37 is from part of a silken wrapping of Charlemagne (early 9th century) now at Aix-laChapelle. It bears a Greek inscription of the names of Peter, governor of Negropont, and Michael, chamberlain of the Imperial Chambers, and this is taken by some authorities as evidence that the weaving was made at Byzantium. On the other hand, Eginhard, Charlemagne's secretary, has written of gifts, including rich textiles presented in his day by Haroun al Raschid to the emperor, and a fabric like that in question might have been made quite possibly even at Baghdad in the 9th century or earlier. In the 11th century amongst the handicraftsmen in the city of Byzantium were many skilled native and foreign weavers; and their designs generally appear to reflect the style of earlier Persianesque and Syrian taste.

About the 12th century the wellused pattern scheme of roundels became more or less superseded by one of continuous ovals, of ogival framings (see fig. 38), contemporary with which are Saracenic patterns based on hexagonal and star-shape frames. Within these new varieties of pattern framings recur the Byzantine and Persianesque pairs of birds, animals, &c. But distinct from these is the more restricted style which has been mentioned. It had arisen under the influence for the most part of the Fatimy Khalifs, not only in Syrta and Alexandria but also in Sicily and Moslem or Saracenic type are usually southern Spain. Patterns of this

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FIG. 39.-Specimens of various Small Loom Weavings between the 7th and 15th centuries. A. Part of a narrow band or orphrey woven in gold and silk threads with a Latin inscription along the edges. German work of the 13th century. B. Part of a broad band or orphrey woven in gold and silk threads with figures of the Crucifixion composed of a succession of parallel and the Annunciation (?). It bears an inscription, Odilia me fecit. It is probably German bands-narrow and wide-containing work of the 13th century. Kufic inscriptions, groups of small C and D. Specimens of Cologne orphreys woven in silk and gold threads; C bears a Latin inscrip- intricate geometrical devices, and tion, and the faces of the Virgin and Child are embroidered. occasionally conventional animals

E. Part of a narrow band woven in gold and silk threads with chevron spaces filled with delicate and birds. A 12th-century example scroll ornament, among which are occasional animal and bird devices. Possibly English or of this class of pattern has been given French work of the 13th century.

elsewhere (see BROCADE, fig. 1). Almeria, Malaga, Grenada and Seville were notable Moorish weaving places in Spain for such patterned silks and stuffs as these; and even after the Christian conquest of Grenada at the end of the 15th century this city retained its celebrity for silks woven "à la Moresque."

F. Part of a narrow band or clavus from a Coptic tunic of the 9th or 10th century.
to back, frequently with a sacred tree device between them. A,
piece of Sassanian silk, probably of the 6th century, shows a gryphon
practically identical with that sculptured on the patterned saddle-
cloth of a king (Chosroes II.?) in the archway to the garden of the
king's palace at Kermchah.

Less common perhaps are patterns, without roundel or other The silken wrappings of St Wilibald (700-786), a founder of the church at Eichstätt, where they are still preserved, are woven with repeated roundels, each enclosing a Daniel between two lions, and are perhaps Byzantine of the 8th century.

See Sir George Birdwood's chapter on Knop and Flower pattern in his Industrial Arts of India, in which this device of ancient Assyrian art is discussed as well as its relation and that of the hom, a fanlike symbol, to cognate ornament in Greek, Roman and even Renaissance art.

In Sicily no similar survival of Saracenic influence seems to have been as strongly maintained, not withstanding the numerous Saracen weavers at work in the island for years before the Royal factory for silk weaving came to be organized at Palermo under Norman supremacy. According to the usual story, Roger of Sicily, or Roger Guiscard, who in 1147 made a successful raid on the shores of Attica, and took Athens, Thebes and Corinth, carried off as prisoners a number of Greek (Byzantine) weavers and settled them at Palermo in the factory known as the Hôtel des Tiraz. A mixture of Byzantine 3 See Abécédaire d'archéologie (June 1854). • Recherches, &c., by Francisque Michel, i. 40.

and Saracenic styles of textile patterns ensued; and this peculiarity | portant part, and possibly was applicable to early brocades. Carmeca is demonstrated in many of the rich fabrics attributed to south and or Carmuk (Arab Kamkla, from the Chinese Kimka-also brocade) north Italian weavers from the 12th century onwards. From Palermo was another handsome stuff corresponding in a way with Indian

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well-known and kindred textiles. Frequently one meets with odd phrases such as "silk of Brydges" (Bruges)," silk dornex" (from Dorneck)," sheets of raynes" (Rheims), and " fuschan in Appules" (Naples fustian). Many of the foregoing stuffs are identifiable by textures peculiar to them; this is, however, not so as regards their ornamental patterns, for these are frequently interchanged, the same class of patterns appearing in satin damasks, velvets and brocades. This is particularly the case with 13th- and 14th-century Italian stuffs. In the patterns of these, as previously suggested, are strong traces of Saracenic and Byzantine motives, intermingled with badges, heraldic devices, human figures, eagles, falcons, hounds, lions, harts, boards, leopards, rays of light, Persianesque pine cone and cloud forms, and even Chinese mystical birds, symmetrically distributed, without framings, as a rule, though elaborations of the ogival frame or scheme are also met with, but less frequently (see fig. 41). Such fabrics, made in the main by Lucchese weavers, appear to have been traded in with other European countries. But besides trade records, there are others relating to Lucchese weavers who left their own town under stress of circumstances, civil wars and the like, to settle and work elsewhere, as in France and Flanders, during the 15th century. Nevertheless the northern parts of Italy were the fertile places for producing fine types of patterned textiles used by Italian and other

FIG. 42.-Damask and Brocade Silk Fabric. Italian manufacture of the 15th century.

European courts and nobles: and if the art seriously dwindled in the town of Lucca, it flourished conspicuously, from the end of the 14th century and up to the beginning of the 16th century, in Venice, Bologna, Genoa, Florence and Milan. There was nothing similar to compete with it in France, Germany or England. The identification of its splendid varieties is made possible upon referring to contemporary paintings by Orcagna, Crivelli, Spinello Aretino and later Italian masters, as well as to those of the Flemish School, Gheraet David, Mabuse, &c.

Of a specially distinct class, very dignified in effect, are patterns of the 15th century based upon the repetition of conventional pentagonally constructed leaf panels, clearly defined in outline, each encircling a pomegranate or cone form around which radiate small leaves or blossoms; though they were more richly developed in superb velvets and cloths of gold, for which Florence, Venice and Genoa were famed, this type of design is also woven in less costly materials. A composite unusual and beautiful design of another kind is given in fig. 42. Repeated large leaf shapes can just be detected in it, but more remarkable are the bunches of radiating stalks of wheat-ears and cornflowers within them; whilst about them, arranged in hexagonal trellising, are leafy bars, small birds, crowns, pomegranates and other daintily depicted plant forms. This piece of damask combined with brocade weaving is of late 15th century manufacture: and after the opening of the next century the freedom towards realistic treatment, which we find here, enters into many of the Italian patterns. In some of them, however, an Ottoman or Anatolian feeling is apparent, as in fig. 43 from a figured silk which is considered to have been made in Venice. The chained dogs and birds in this design recall the rather more formal ones in Lucchese patterns of a hundred and fifty years earlier, whereas the lengthy serrated leaves and elongated flower devices charged with

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carnations and hyacinths depicted on a smaller scale are unmistakably Ottoman. Persian fabrics of rather thin silk material or taffetas like that of the original of this were also being woven with varieties of floral designs, as well as others portraying Persian stories. At this period there was considerable activity in weaving sumptuous stuffs at Broussa and Constantinople (fig. 44). Arabic and Turkish weavers often came over to be employed in Venice, blending Italian and Oriental characteristics into their designs. In Spain during the early 16th century we have traces of HispanoMoresque influence in the overlapping and interlocking nondescript forms; but Spanish weavings are hardly comparable in quality with the Italian of the same time. In the middle of this century cloths of gold or of silver, with the pattern details raised in velvet and brocatelles of similar formal design were made in greater quantities in Italy for costumes_of men and women. The frequent basis of most of the designs is the ogival framework already referred to, but it is much elaborated with detail and combined with the cone device of a previous century. The ornamentation of this style is purely conventional throughout, the various devices having little of the appearance of actual objects like fruit, leaves, &c.

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The time, however, was close at hand when a more general reaction was to set in, in the direction of designs representing forms very nearly as they actually look, an example of which occurs in fig. 45, with its leaf forms and crowns. This from a class of silk damask or lampas, which is kindred to brocatelle; a feature in lampas is that its ground is different in colour from that of the ornament on it, and as in the case of portions of brocatelles its texture is of taffeta or sarcenet quality. At the end of the 16th century a peculiar type of pattern consists of repetitions in different positions of the same detail treated real

istically or purely ornamentally, little if any. thing of quite the same

character having been previously designed. Of such fig. 46, with its repeated realistic leafy FIG. 43.-Piece of Venetian Silk Weavlogs variously placed, is ing, showing Ottoman influence in the an example. The prin- design (16th century). ciple in the composition

of these patterns, but with a greater variety of conventional detail, is followed in French 17th century examples. However, as soon as figured weaving became well organized in France at this time, a school of designers arose in that country who adopted a realism that predominated in French patterns during the succeeding 150 years, that is, from Louis XIV. to the end of the 18th century. Throughout this period French figured stuffs seem to surpass those of other countries. "If," writes Monsieur Pariset, "any account is to be taken of the weavers during the 14th and 15th centuries who made cloths and velvets of silk at Paris, Rouen, Lyons, Nimes and Avignon, it must be remembered that they were almost solely Italian emigrants from Lucca and Florence, who had fled their towns during troublous native workmen were encouraged to promote the city's interests in By a charter granted by Francis I. to Lyons, foreign and trade and manufacture; still, it is not until the 17th century that Lyons really asserts herself in producing fabrics possessing French taste and ornamentation. The more important designs were supplied by trained artists of whom Reval, a pupil of Le Brun, the first principal of the Academie des Beaux Arts founded by Colbert in París (1648), Pillement and Philippe de la Salle in the 18th century, may be See Ornament in European Silks (London, 1899), p. 15.

times.

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named. Their influence in the domain of fanciful, and at times extravagant realistic, floral patterns was widespread. Soon after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, in consequence of which thousands of Protestant weavers left France, factories for weaving silks and mixed materials with patterns imitating the successive French phases became organized at Spitalfields, in Cheshire, Yorkshire, Norfolk and elsewhere in England, as well as in Germany at Crefeld, Elberfeld, Barmen and Weissen.

Entirely distinct from what has already been discussed is a branch of artistic weaving concerned with the decoration of linens, that flourished notably in Italy towards the end of the 15th century and in the 16th century. From early times long and narrow Italian tablecloths were enriched with ornament of linen or cotton threads of a single colour, and Signora Isabella Erera has written at some length about them,1 illustrating the result of her investigations with several examples culled from paintings by Pietro Lorenzetto of Siena (1340), by Ghirlandaja (1447-1490), &c. In Leonardo da Vinci's painting of the Last Supper, now in the Louvre, the border of the tablecloth is very like many examples of this sort of textile in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Their characteristic ornament, in rather heavy blue thread, consists of quaint animals and birds in pairs, which are evident derivations of those so often seen in Italo-Byzantine and Lucchese silks and brocades. Be

FIG. 44.-Ottoman (Anatolian) Silk and Gold Thread Weaving of the 16th century, with ogival framed ornament. The original is stated to have come from a sultana's tomb at Broussa or Constantinople.

larly with Perugia. In the 16th century, work of similar style was produced, but it was lighter and flatter in texture and often done

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FIG. 46.-Italian Silk Damask or Lampas of late 16th century, with pattern of repeated leafy logs.

with red or yellow silk, and embroidery was sometimes added to the weaving.

The most important and probably the best known class of later ornamental linen weaving is that of damask household napery, which, as a reflection of satin damask, was developed in the flax-growing regions of Saxony, Flanders and North France, during the late 15th or early 16th century; it was then rare and acquired for use by wealthy persons only. The style of design in the better of the old linen damasks has some kinship with that of bold 15th- and 16thcentury woodcuts of the Flemish or German schools. To some extent these damask figure subjects recall those of the coloured Cologne and Venetian orphreys for copes and apparels for dalmatics. The early history of linen damask is obscure, but a great many of its results are preserved in England. A napkin with the royal shield of Henry VII., the supporters within the garter surmounted by the crown, is in the Victoria and Albert Museum where it is called Flemish. On the other hand it is possibly the work of Flemings in England, since from the time of Edward I. and for a hundred years a constant stream of emigrants passed from Flanders to England." The Victoria and Albert Museum contains an early 16th-century tablecloth in damask linen of German or Flemish manufacture with various subjects, chiefly religious and moral: Gideon being shown as a kneeling knight, the fleece of wool on the ground being near him, while from above the dew falls on it; below Gideon is the Virgin Mary and the unicorn, and lower down an angel with seven dogs' heads typifying different virtues as shown in the lettering-fides, spes, charitas, &c. In another which was probably made in England (at Norwich?) by Flemings during the second half of the 16th century, we find St George and the Dragon, the royal arms of Queen Anne Boleyn, the badges of Queen Anne Boleyn and Queen Elizabeth, the crowned Tudor Rose, and repeated portraits of Queen Elizabeth, with the legend below, "God save the Queene." This specimen is also in the Victoria and Albert Museum. A hundred years later in date is a tablecloth on which is a view of old St Paul's (burnt in 1666), while above and below occurs the wreathed shield of the

FIG. 45.-Italian Silk Damask or Lampas, with purple ground and City of London. A different class of linen, with the design done in

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sides animals and birds, reversed names and words were sometimes introduced, e.g." Amor "for" Roma," "Asoizarg" for "Graziosa" and "Eroma" for "Amore," &c. The simpler of these table-cloth patterns probably date from before the 14th century, whilst the fuller ones were certainly made in considerable quantities in the 15th century. An inventory dated 1842 has an entry of two napkins or cloths woven in cotton with bands of dragons and lions à la Pérugina, which is suggestive that this type of weaving was associated particu! See the Italian monthly art review, Emporium, vol. xxiii. (1906).

blue, was evidently, from the inscriptions on it, the work of a German or Fleming, and probably woven in Germany about 1730. Here we find the wreathed arms of the City of London, a view of London," and "George der II. König in Engelland mounted on horseback. In this specimen the design is repeated, and

2 The earl of Northumberland (1512) is said to have had but eight linen cloths for his personal use, while his large retinue of servants had but one, which was washed once a month. (See notes by Rev. C. H. Evelyn White on damask linen. Proceedings of Society of Antiquaries, second series, vol. xx. p. 132.)

See Rev. C. H. Evelyn White's paper on damask linen, Proceedings of Society of Antiquaries, second series, vol. xx. pp. 130-140.

not reversed, as is the case with the earlier pieces. A large collection of this German damask weaving with coloured thread was formed under the auspices of the Royal Kunstgewerbe Museum at Dresden. The north-eastern Irish industry of damask weaving owes much to French Protestant refugees, who settled there towards the close of the 17th century, though linen manufacture had been established in the district by a colony of Scots in 1634. Dunfermline in Scotland is said to produce as much damask as the rest of Europe, but there are important manufactories of it at Courtrai and Liége in Belgium, in Silesia, Austria and elsewhere.

LITERATURE. The following are titles of a few works on weaving, from which much important information on the subject may be derived:-J. Bezon, Dictionnaire des tissus (8 vols., Paris, 18591863), more or less technical only, Dictionnaire des sciences (Paris, 1751-1780), technical; Michel Francisque, Recherches sur le commerce, la fabrication et l'usage des étoffes de soie, d'or et d'argent (2 vols., Paris, 1852-1854), a well-known work full of erudition in respect of the archaeology of woven fabrics, their technical characteristics, &c.; James Yates, Textrinum antiquorum: an Account of the Art of Weaving among the Ancients (London, 1843), a very valuable and learned work of reference; Very Rev. Daniel Rock, D.D., Textile Fabrics (London, 1870), with some few good illustrations; Pariset, Histoire de la soie (Paris, 1862); Raymond Cax, L'Art de décorer les tissus, &c. (Paris, 1900); Alan Cole, Ornament in European Silks (London, 1899). well illustrated; J. Lessing, Berlin königliche Museen, Die Gewebe-Sammlung des k. Kunstgewerbe-Museums (Berlin, 1900), a very fine series of phototype facsimiles of all kinds of textiles; A. Riegl, Die ägyptischen Textil-Funde (Wien, 1889); R. Forrer, Römische und byzantinische Seiden-Textilien (Strassburg, 1891); A. Dupont Auberville, L'Ornament des tissus (Paris, 1877), admirable illustrations; F. Fischbach, Die wichtigsten Webe-Ornamente (3 vols., Wiesbaden, 1901), admirable illustrations; Raymond Cax, Le Musée historique des tissus . . . de Lyon (Lyon, 1902); Nuremberg: Germanisches Museum, Katalog der Gewebesammlung des germanischen National-Museums (Nuremberg, 1896). (A. S. C.) WEB (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Du. webbe, Dan. taco, Ger. Gewebe, all from the Teutonic wabh-to weave), that which is woven (see WEAVING). The word is thus applied to anything resembling a web of cloth, to the vexillum of the feather of a bird, to the membrane which connects the toes of many aquatic birds and some aquatic mammals; it is particularly used of the "cobweb," the net spun by the spider, the Old English name for which was tor-coppe, i.e. poison-head (étor, poison, and coppe, tuft or head). In architecture the term "web" is sometimes given, in preference to "panel," to the stone shell of a vault resting on the ribs and taking its winding surface from the same; see VAULT.

surveyor of taxes in 1879, and in 1881 entered the colonial
In 1885 he was called to
office, where he remained until 1891.
the bar at Gray's Inn. Mr Webb was one of the early members
of the Fabian Society, contributing to Fabian Essays (1889);
and he became well-known as a socialist, both by his speeches
and his writings. He entered the London County Council in
1892 as member for Deptford, and was returned at the head
of the poll in the successive elections of 1895, 1898, 1901 and
1904. He resigned from the civil service in 1891 to give his whole
time to the work of the Council (where he was chairman of the
Technical Education Board) and to the study of economics.'
He served from 1903 to 1906 on the Royal Commission on Trade
Union Law and on other important commissions. He married
in 1892 Miss Beatrice Potter, herself a writer on economics and
sociology, the author of The Co-operative Movement in Great
Britain (1891) and a contributor to Charles Booth's Life and
Labour of the People (1891-1903). His most important works
are: a number of Fabian tracts; London Education (1904);
The Eight Hours Day (1891), in conjunction with Harold Cox;
and, with Mrs Sidney Webb, The History of Trade Unionism
(1894, new ed. 1902), Industrial Democracy (1897, new ed. 1902),
Problems of Modern Industry (1898), History of Liquor Licensing
(1903), English Local Government (1906), &c. Mrs Webb was
a member of the Royal Commission on the Poor Law, and she
and her husband were responsible for the Minority Report
(see POOR LAW) and for starting the widespread movement in

its favour.

WEBB CITY, a city of Jasper county, Missouri, U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state, about 160 m. S. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890) 5043; (1900) 9201, of whom 248 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 11,817. It is served by the Missouri Pacific and the St Louis & San Francisco railway systems, and is the headquarters of the electric interurban railway connecting with Carthage and Joplin, Missouri, Galena, Kansas and other citics. With Carterville (pop. 1910, 4539), which adjoins it on the E., it forms practically one city; they are among the most famous and productive "" camps in the rich lead and zinc region of south-western Missouri, and Webb City owes its industrial importance primarily to the mining and shipping of those metals. The value of the factory product increased from $353,566 in 1900 to $637,965 in 1905. Webb City was laid out and incorporated as a town in 1875, and first chartered as a city in 1876. White lead was discovered here in 1873, on the farm of John C. Webb, in whose honour the city is named; and systematic mining began in 1877.

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WEBB, MATTHEW (1848-1883), English swimmer, generally known as "Captain Webb," was born at Dawley in Shropshire on the 18th of January 1848, the son of a doctor. While still a boy he saved one of his brothers from drowning in the Severn, WEBBE, WILLIAM (fl. 1586), English literary critic, was and, while serving on board the training ship in the Mersey, he educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where he took his again distinguished himself by saving a drowning comrade. degree in 1572-1573. He was tutor to the two sons of Edward He served his apprenticeship in the East India and China trade, Sulyard of Flemyngs, Essex, and later to the children of Henry shipped as second mate for several owners, and in 1874, was Grey of Pirgo in the same county. A letter from him is prefixed awarded the first Stanhope gold medal by the Royal Humane to the 1592 edition of Tancred and Gismunda, written by his Society for an attempt to save a seaman who had fallen over-friend, Robert Wilmot. In 1586 he published A Discourse of board from the Cunard steamship " Russia." In 1875 Captain Webb abandoned a sea-faring life and became a professional swimmer. On the 3rd of July he swam from Blackwall Pier to Gravesend, a distance of 20 m., in 4 hours, a record which remained unbeaten until 1899. In the same year, after one unsuccessful attempt, he swam the English Channel, on the 24th of August, from Dover to Calais in 21 hours. For the next few years Webb gave performances of diving and swimming at the Royal Aquarium in London and elsewhere. Crossing to America, he attempted, on the 24th of July 1883, to swim the rapids and whirlpool below Niagara Falls. In this attempt

he lost his life.

WEBB, SIDNEY (1859- ), English socialist and author, was born in London on the 13th of July 1859. He was educated at private schools in London and Switzerland, at the Birkbeck Institute and the City of London College. From 1875 to 1878 he was employed in a city office, but he entered the civil service by open competition as a clerk in the War Office in 1878, became See Leinendamastmuster des XVII. und XVIII. Jahrhunderts, Emil Kumsch (Dresden, 1891).

English Poetrie, dedicated to his patron, Edward Sulyard. Webbe argued that the dearth of good English poetry since Chaucer's day was not due to lack of poetic ability, or to the poverty of the language, but to the want of a proper system of prosody. He abuses this tinkerly verse which we call ryme," as of barbarous origin, and comments on the works of his contemporaries, displaying enthusiasm for Spenser's Shepheardes Calendar, and admiration for Phaer's translation of Virgil. He urged the adoption of hexameters and sapphics for English verse, and gives some lamentable examples of his own composition.

The Discourse was reprinted in J. Haslewood's Ancient Critical Essays (1811-1815), by E. Arber in 1869, and in Gregory Smith's Elizabethan Critical Essays (1904).

WEBER, CARL MARIA FRIEDRICH ERNEST VON (17861826), German composer, was born at Eutin, near Lübeck, on the 18th of December 1786, of a family that had long been devoted to art. His father, Baron Franz Anton von Weber, a military

2 The original play, Gismonde of Salerne, was by five authors, and was produced in the Queen's presence at the Inner Temple in 1568.

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