Delagoa Bay. At that time the Transvaal government-which had been the first to reap the benefit of Great Britain's defeat of the Zulu by acquiring the "New Republic "-was endeavouring to obtain the territories of Zambaan and Umtegiza, hoping also to secure a route through Tongaland to Kosi Bay. President Kruger protested in vain against this annexation, Great Britain being determined to prevent another Power establishing itself on the south-east African seaboard. In 1893 Sir M. Osborn was succeeded as resident commissioner by Sir Marshal Clarke,' who gained the confidence and good will of the Zulu. At the close of 1897 Zululand, in Zululand which Tongaland had been incorporated, was handed made part of Natal. over by the imperial government to Natal, and Sir (then Mr) C. J. R. Saunders was appointed civil commissioner of the province, with whose government he had been associated since 1887. In 1898 Dinizulu was allowed to return and was made a "government induna." Officially one of several chiefs subject to the control of the resident magistrate, he was, in fact, regarded by most of the Zulu as the head of their nation. His influence appeared to be in the main exercised on the side of order. During the war of 1899-1902 there was some fighting between the Zulu and the Boers, provoked by the Boers entering Zulu territory. A Zulu kraal having been raided, the Zulu retaliated and, surrounding a small Boer commando, succeeded in killing every member of it. In September 1901 Louis Botha made an attempt to invade Natal by way of Zululand, but the stubborn defence made by the small posts at Itala and Prospect Hill, both within the Zulu border, caused him to give up the project. Throughout the war the Zulu showed marked partiality for Boer raids. the British side. At the close of the war the Natal government decided to allow white settlers in certain districts of Zululand, and a Lands Delimitation Commission was appointed. The commission, however, reported (1905) that four-fifths of Zululand was unfit for European habitation, and the remaining fifth already densely populated. The commissioners urged that the tribal system should be maintained. Meantime the coal mines near St Lucia Bay were opened up and connected with Durban by railway. At this time rumours were current of disaffection among the Zulu, but this was regarded as the effervescence natural after the war. In 1905 a poll tax of £1 on all adult males was imposed by the Natal legislature; this tax was the ostensible cause of a revolt in 1906 among the natives of Natal, who were largely of Zulu origin. Bambaata, the The Re volt of leader of the revolt, fled to Zululand. He took 1906: refuge in the dense bush in the Nkandhla highlands, Dinizulu's where Cetywayo's grave became the rallying-point trial. of the rebels, who in April were joined by an aged chief named Sigananda and his tribe. After an arduous campaign, the Natal force (about 5000 strong) being commanded by Col. Sir Duncan McKenzie, the rebellion was crushed by July 1906, without the aid of imperial troops. Bambaata was killed in battle (June 10th); his head was cut off for purposes of identification, but afterwards buried with the body. Sigananda surrendered. In all some 3500 Zulus were killed and about 3000 taken prisoners, the majority of the prisoners being released in 1907 (see further NATAL: History). Zululand remained, however, in a disturbed condition, and a number of white traders and officials were murdered. Dinizulu had been accused of harbouring Bambaata, and in December 1907 the Natal government felt justified in charging him with high treason, murder and other crimes. A military force entered Zululand, and Dinizulu surrendered without opposition. He was brought to trial in November 1908, and in March 1909 was found guilty of harbouring rebels. The more serious charges against him Lieut. Col. Sir Marshal James Clarke, R.A. (1841-1909) was A.D.C. to Sir Theophilus Shepstone when the Transvaal was annexed in 1877. He served in the Boer war of 1880-81; was resident commissioner of Basutoland from 1884 to 1893, and after leaving Zululand became resident commissioner in Southern Rhodesia (1898). He was made a K.C.M.G. in 1886. were not proved. He was sentenced to four years' imprisonment and deprived of his position as a government induna. Other Zulu chiefs were convicted of various offences and sentenced to imprisonment. At his trial Dinizulu was defended by W. P. Schreiner, ex-premier of Cape Colony, while Miss H. E. Colenso (a daughter of Bishop Colenso) constituted herself his champion in the press of Natal and Great Britain. On the day that the Union of South Africa was established (31st of May 1910), the Botha ministry released Dinizulu from prison. He was subsequently settled on a farm in the Transvaal and given a pension of £500 a year. BIBLIOGRAPHY.-British War Office, Précis of information concerning Zululand (1894) and Précis. concerning Tongaland and North Zululand (1905); Report on the Forests of Zululand (Col. Off., 1891); J. S. Lister, Report on Forestry in Natal and Zululand (Maritzburg, 1902); Zululand Lands Delimitation Commission, 1902-4, Reports (Maritzburg, 1905); A. T. Bryant, A Zulu-English Dictionary with ... a concise history of the Zulu People from the since 1795, 5 vols. (1908), vols. i. and iv. are specially valuable most Ancient Times (1905); G. McC. Theal, History of South Africa for Zululand; J. Y. Gibson, The Story of the Zulus (Maritzburg, 1908); J. A. Farrer, Zululand and the Zulus: their History, Beliefs, Customs, Military System, &c. (4th ed. 1879). For more detailed study consult Saxe Bannister, Humane Policy (1830), and authorities collected in Appendix; A. Delegorgue, Voyage de l'Afrique Australe (Paris, 1847); A. F. Gardiner, Narrative of Journey to the Zoolu Country (1836); N. Isaacs, Travels . . descriptive of the Zoolus: their Manners, Customs, &c. (2 vols. 1836); Zululand under Dingaan: Account of Mr Owen's Visit in 1837 (Cape Town, 1880); Rev. B. Shaw, Memorials of South Africa (1841); Rev. G. H. Mason, Life with the Zulus of Natal (1852) and Zululand: a Mission Tour (1862); D. Leslie, Among the Zulus and Amatongas (2nd ed. Edinburgh, 1875); Bishop Colenso, Langalibalele and the Amahlubi Tribe (1874); Zulu Boundary Commission (Books i.-iv., 1878, MSS. in Colonial Office Library, London); C. Vijn (trans. from the Dutch by Bishop Colenso), Cetshwayo's Dutchman (1880); British official Narrative of. ... the Zulu War of 1879 (1881); A. Septans, Les Expéditions anglaises en Afrique: Zulu, 1879 (Paris, 1896); Frances E. Colenso and Col. E. Durnford, History of the Zulu War and its Origin (2nd ed. 1881); F. E. Colenso, The Ruin of Zululand (2 vols. 1884-85); Capt. H. H. Parr, A Sketch of the Kaffir and Zulu Wars (1880); Cetywayo's Story of the Zulu Nation," Macmillan's Magazine (1880); H. Rider Haggard, Cetywayo and his White Neighbours (1882); B. Mitford, Through the Zulu Country British official Military Report on Zululand (1906); W. Bosman, The (1883); J. Tyler, Forty Years among the Zulus (Boston, 1891); Natal Rebellion of 1906 (1907); Rosamond Southey, Storm and Sunshine in South Africa (1910). See also the Lives of Sir Bartle Frere, Bishop Colenso, Sir G. Pomeroy Colley and Sir J. C. Molteno, (F. R. C.) and the authorities cited under Natal. ZUMALACÁRREGUI, THOMAS (1788-1835), Spanish Carlist general, was born at Ormaiztegui in Navarre on the 29th of December 1788. His father, Francisco Antonio Zumalacárregui, was a lawyer who possessed some property, and the son was articled to a solicitor. When the French invasion took place in 1808 he enlisted at Saragossa. He served in the first siege,! at the battle of Tudela, and during the second siege until he was taken prisoner in a sortie. He succeeded in escaping and in reaching his family in Navarre. For a short time he served with Gaspar de Jauregui, known as " The Shepherd " (El Pastor), one of the minor guerrillero leaders. But Zumalacárregui, who was noted for his grave and silent disposition and his strong religious principles, disliked the disorderly life of the guerrillas, and when regular forces were organized in the north he entered the 1st battalion of Guipuzcoa as an officer. During the remainder of the war he served in the regular army. In 1812 he was sent with despatches to the Regency at Cadiz, and received his commission as captain. In that rank he was present at the battle of San Marciál (31st of August 1813). After the restoration of Ferdinand VII. he continued in the army, and is said to have made a careful study of the theory of war. Zumalacárregui had no sympathy with the liberal principles which were spreading in Spain, and became noted as what was called a Servil or strong Royalist. He attracted no attention at headquarters, and was still a captain when the revolution of 1820 broke out. His brother officers, whose leanings were liberal, denounced him to the revolutionary government, and asked that he might be removed. The recommendation was not acted on, but Zumalacárregui knew of it, and laid up the offence in his mind. Finding that he was suspected (probably | He edited Quintilian's Institutio oratoria (1831), Cicero's Ver with truth) of an intention to bring the soldiers over to the rines and De officiis (1837), and Curtius. Otherwise he devoted royalist side, he escaped to France. In 1823 he returned as an himself mainly to Roman history, publishing Annales telerum officer in one of the royalist regiments which had been organized regnorum et populorum (3rd ed. 1862), a work in chronology on French soil by the consent of the government. He was now down to A.D. 476, and other antiquarian studies. His nephew, known as a thoroughly trustworthy servant of the despotic AUGUST WILHELM ZUMPT (1815-1877), studied in Berlin, and royalty, but he was too proud to be a courtier. For some years in 1851 became professor in the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium. he was employed in bringing regiments which the government He is known chiefly in connexion with Latin epigraphy, his distrusted to order. He became lieutenant-colonel in 1825 and papers on which (collected in Commentationes epigraphicae, colonel in 1829. In 1832 he was named military governor of 2 vols., 1850-54) brought him into conflict with Mommsen in Ferrol. Before Ferdinand VII. died in 1833, Zumalacárregui connexion with the preparation of the Corpus inscriptionum was marked out as a natural supporter of the absolutist party Latinarum, a scheme for which, drawn up by Mommsen, was which favoured the king's brother, Don Carlos. The pro-approved in 1847. His works include Monumentum Ancyranum clamation of the king's daughter Isabella as heiress was almost (with Franck, 1847) and De monumento Ancyrano supplendo the occasion of an armed conflict between him and the naval (1869); Studia Romana (1859); Das Kriminalrecht der rêm. authorities at Ferrol, who were partisans of the constitutional Republik (1865-69); Der Kriminalprozess der röm. Republik cause. He was put on half pay by the new authorities and (1871); editions of Namatianus (1840), Cicero's Pro Murena ordered to live under police observation at Pamplona. When (1859) and De lege agraria (1861). Ihne incorporated materials the Carlist rising began on the death of Ferdinand he is said to left by him in the 7th and 8th vols. of his Römische Geschichte have held back because he knew that the first leaders would be (1840). politicians and talkers. He did not take the field till the Carlist cause appeared to be at a very low ebb, and until he had received a commission from Don Carlos as commander-in-chief in Navarre. | The whole force under his orders when he escaped from Pamplona on the night of the 29th of October 1833, and took the command next day in the Val de Araquil, was a few hundred ill-armed and dispirited guerrilleros. In a few months Zumalacárregui had organized the Carlist forces into a regular army. The difficulty he found in obtaining supplies was very great, for the coast towns-and notably Bilbao-were constitutional in politics. It was mainly by captures from the government troops that he equipped his forces. He gradually obtained full possession of Navarre and the Basque provinces, outside of the fortresses, which he had not the means to besiege. Whether as a guerrillero leader, or as a general conducting regular war in the mountains, he proved unconquerable. By July 1834 he had made it safe for Don Carlos to join his headquarters. The pretender was, however, a narrow-minded, bigoted man, who regarded Zumalacárregui with suspicion, and was afraid of his immense personal influence with the soldiers. Zumalacarregui had therefore to drag behind him the whole weight of the distrust and intrigues of the court. Yet by the beginning of June 1835 he had made the Carlist cause triumphant to the north of the Ebro, and had formed an army of more than 30,000 men, of much better quality than the constitutional forces. If Zumalacárregui had been allowed to follow his own plans, which were to concentrate his forces and march on Madrid, he might well have put Don Carlos in possession of the capital. But the court was eager to obtain command of a seaport, and Zumalacárregui was ordered to besiege Bilbao. He obeyed reluctantly, and on the 14th of June 1835 was wounded by a musket bullet in the calf of the leg. The wound was trifling and would probably have been cured with case if he had been allowed to employ an English doctor whom he trusted. But Don Carlos insisted on sending his own physicians, and in their hands the general died on the 24th of June 1835-not without suspicion of poison. Zumalacárregui was a fine type of the old royalist and religious principles of his people. The ferocity with which he conducted the war was forced on him by the government generals, who refused quarter. ZUNZ, LEOPOLD (1794-1886), Jewish scholar, was born at Detmold in 1794, and died in Berlin in 1886. He was the founder of what has been termed the "science of Judaism," the critical investigation of Jewish literature, hymnology and ritual. Early in the 19th century he was associated with Gara Moser and Heine in an association which the last named called "Young Palestine." The ideals of this Verein were not destined to bear religious fruit, but the "science of Judaism survived. Zunz took no large share in Jewish reform, but never lost faith in the regenerating power of "science" as applied to the traditions and literary legacies of the ages. He had thoughts of becoming a preacher, but found the career uncongenial. He influenced Judaism from the study rather than from the pulpit. In 1832 appeared what E. H. Hirsch rightly terms "the most important Jewish book published in the 19th century." This was Zunz's Gottesdienstliche Verträge der Juden, i.e. a history of the Sermon. It lays down principles for the investigation of the Rabbinic exegesis (Midrash, q.v.) and of the prayer-book of the synagogue. This book raised Zunz to the supreme position among Jewish scholars. In 1840 he was appointed director of a Lehrerseminar, a post which relieved him from pecuniary troubles. In 1845 appeared his Zur Geschichte und Literatur, in which he threw light on the literary and social history of the Jews. Zunz was always interested in politics, and in 1848 addressed many public meetings. In 1850 he resigned his headship of the Teachers' Seminary, and was awarded a pension. He had visited the British Museum in 1846, and this confirmed him in his plan for his third book, Synagogale Poesie des Mittelalters (1855). It was from this book that George Eliot translated the following opening of a chapter of Daniel Deronda: "If there are ranks in suffering. Israel takes precedence of all the nations" &c. After its publication Zunz again visited England, and in 1859 issued his Ritus. In this he gives a masterly survey of synagogal rites. His last great book was his Literaturgeschichte der synagogaler Poesie (1865). A supplement appeared in 1867. Besides these works, Zunz published a new translation of the Bible, and wrote many essays which were afterwards collected as Gesammelte Schriften. Throughout his early and married life he was the champion of Jewish rights, and he did not withdraw from public affairs until 1874, the year of the death of his wife Adelhei Beermann, whom he had married in 1822. See Emil G. Hirsch, in Jewish Encyclopedia, xii. 699–704. (1.A) ZURBARAN, FRANCISCO (1598-1662), Spanish painter, was born at Fuente de Cantos in Estremadura on the 7th of November 1598. His father was Luis Zurbaran, a country labourer, his mother Isabel Marquet. In childhood he set about imitating objects with charcoal; and his father sent him, still young, to the school of Juan de Roélas in Seville. Francisco soon became the best pupil in the studio of Roélas, surpassing the master himself; and before leaving him he had achieved a solid reputation, full though Seville then was of able painters. He may have had here the opportunity of copying some of the paintings of Michelangelo da Caravaggio; at any rate he gained the name of "the Spanish Caravaggio," owing to the forcible realistic style in which he excelled. He constantly painted direct from nature, following but occasionally improving on his model; and he made great use of the lay-figure in the study of draperies, in which he was peculiarly proficient. He had a special gift for white draperies; and, as a consequence, Carthusian houses are abundant in his paintings. To these rigid methods Zurbaran is said to have adhered throughout his career, which was prosperous, wholly confined to Spain, and varied by few incidents beyond those of his daily labour. His subjects | were mostly of a severe and ascetic kind-religious vigils, the flesh chastised into subjection to the spirit-the compositions seldom thronged, and often reduced to a single figure. The style is more reserved and chastened than Caravaggio's, the tone of colour often bluish to excess. Exceptional effects are attained by the precise finish of foregrounds, largely massed out in light and shade. Zurbaran married in Seville Leonor de Jordera, by whom he had several children. Towards 1630 he was appointed painter to Philip IV.; and there is a story that on one occasion the sovereign laid his hand on the artist's shoulder, saying, "Painter to the king, king of painters." It was only late in life that Zurbaran made a prolonged stay in Madrid, Seville being the chief scene of his operations. He died, probably in 1662, in Madrid. In 1627 he painted the great altarpiece of St Thomas Aquinas, now in the Seville museum; it was executed for the church of the college of that saint there. This is Zurbaran's largest composition, containing figures of Christ and the Madonna, various saints, Charles V. with knights, and Archbishop Deza (founder of the college) with monks and servitors, all the principal personages being beyond the size of life. It had been preceded by the numerous pictures of the screen of St Peter Nolasco in the cathedral. In the church of Guadalupe he painted various large pictures, eight of which relate to the history of St Jerome, and in the church of St Paul, Seville, a famous figure of the Crucified Saviour, in grisaille, presenting an illusive effect of marble. In 1633 he finished the paintings of the high altar of the Carthusians in Jerez. In the palace of Buenretiro, Madrid, are four large canvases representing the Labours of Hercules, an unusual instance of non-Christian subjects from the hand of Zurbaran. A fine specimen is in the National Gallery, London, a whole-length, life-sized figure of a kneeling Franciscan holding a skull. It seems probable that another picture in the same gallery, the "Dead Roland," which used to be ascribed to Velasquez, is really by Zurbaran. His principal scholars, whose style has as much affinity to that of Ribera as to Caravaggio's, were Bernabe de Ayala and the brothers Polanco. (W. M. R.) ZÜRICH (Fr. Zurich; Ital. Zurigo), one of the cantons of north-eastern Switzerland, ranking officially as the first in the Confederation. Its total area is 665.7 sq. m., of which 625.2 sq. m. are reckoned as "productive" (forests covering 180.8 sq. m., and vineyards 16-9 sq. m., the most extensive Swiss wine district save in Vaud and in Ticino). Of the rest, 21 sq. m. are occupied by the cantonal share of the lake of Zürich, while wholly within the canton are the smaller lakes of Greifen (3 sq. m.) and Pfäffikon (1 sq. m.). The canton is of irregular shape, consisting simply of the acquisitions made in the course of years by the town. Of these the more important were the whole of the lower part of the lake (1362), Küssnacht (1384), Thalwil (1385), Erlenbach (1400), Greifensee (1402), Horgen (1406), Grüningen and Stäfa (1408), Bülach and Regensberg (1409), Wald (1425), Kyburg (1452), Winterthur (1467), Eglisau (1496), Konau (1512), and Wädenswil (1549)-Stein was held from 1484 to 1798, while in 1798 the lower part of the Stammheim glen, and finally in 1803 Rheinau, were added to the canton. In 1798 the town ruled nineteen "inner" bailiwicks and nine rural bailiwicks, besides the towns of Stein and of Winterthur. The canton at present extends from the left bank of the Rhine (including also Eglisau on the right bank) to the region west of the lake of Zürich. It is bounded on the E. and W. by low hills that divide it respectively from the valleys of the Thur, and from those of the Reuss and of the Aar. In itself the canton consists of four shallow river valleys, separated by low ranges, all | running from S.E. to N.W. The most important of these is that of the Linth (q.v.), which forms the lake of Zürich. To the east are the valleys of the Glatt (forming lake Greifen) and of the Töss (forming lake Pfäffikon), both sending their streams direct to the Rhine. The highest point in the canton is the Albishorn (3012 ft.) in the Albis range, which limits the Sihl valley to the west. All the valleys named are traversed by railway lines, while many lines branch off in every direction from the town of Zürich. The first railway line opened (1847) in Switzerland was that from Zürich to Baden in Aargau (14 m.). From the town of Zürich mountain railways lead S.W. to near the summit of the Uetliberg (2864 ft.) and N.E. towards the Zürichberg (2284 ft.). In 1900 the population was 431,036, of whom 413,141 were German-speaking, 11,192 Italian-speaking, 3894 French-speaking, and 610 Romonsch-speaking, while there were 345,446 Protestants, of the canton is Zürich (q..), but Winterthur (q.v.) is the only 80,752 Catholics (Roman or " Old "), and 2933 Jews. The capital other considerable town, Uster (7623 inhabitants), and Horgen (6883 inhabitants) being rather large manufacturing villages. The land in the canton is highly cultivated and much subdivided. But the machinery and railway rolling-stock, while both silk weaving and canton is above all a great manufacturing district, especially of cotton weaving are widely spread. It is divided into 11 administrative districts, which comprise 189 communes. In 1869 the cantonal constitution was revised in a democratic sense, and with the exception of a few changes made later, it is the existing constitution. There is an executive or Regierungsrat of seven members and a legislature or Kantonsrat (one member to every 1500 resident Swiss citizens or a fraction over 750), each holding office for three years and elected at the same time directly by the vote of the people. The referendum exists in both forms, compulsory and optional: all laws and all money grants of a total sum over 250,000 frcs. or an annual sum of 20,000 must be submitted to a popular vote, the people meeting for that purpose at least twice in each year, while the executive may submit to a popular vote any other matter, though it fall within its powers as defined by law. Onethird of the members of the legislature or 5000 legally qualified voters can force the government to submit to the people any matter whatsoever (initiative). Both members of the Federal Ständerat and the 22 members of the Federal Nationalrat are elected simultaneously by a popular vote and hold office for three years. The constitution provides for the imposition of a graduated and progressive income tax. In 1885 the penalty of death was abolished in the canton. (W. A. B. C.) That ZÜRICH (Fr. Zurich; Ital. Zurigo), the capital of the Swiss canton of the same name. It is the most populous, the most important, and on the whole the finest town in Switzerland, and till 1848 was practically the capital of the Swiss Confederation. It is built on both banks of the Limmat (higher up called Linth) as it issues from the lake of Zürich, and also of its tributary, the Sihl, that joins it just below the town. portion of the town which lies on the right bank of the Limmat is called the "Grosse Stadt" and that on the left bank the "Kleine Stadt." Till 1893 the central portion of the town on either bank of the Limmat formed the "city" and ruled the outlying communes or townships that had sprung up around it. But at that time the eleven outer districts (including Aussersihl, the workmen's quarter on the left bank of the Sihl) or suburbs were incorporated with the town, which is now governed by a town council of 125 members (one to every 1200 inhabitants), and an executive of 9 members, both chosen direct by a popular vote. Much land has been rescued from the lake, and is the site of fine quays, stately public buildings, and splendid private villas. The older quarters are still crowded. But the newer quarters stretch up the slope of the Zürichberg (above the right bank of the Limmat) while the fine Bahnhofstrasse (extending from the railway station to the lake) has the best shops and is in the neighbourhood of the more important public buildings. enormously, as is shown by the following figures. Its population Zürich has always been wealthy and prosperous. It has increased in 1900 (including the eleven suburbs above named) was 150,703, while (without these) in 1888 it was 94,129; in 1880, 78,345; in 1870, 58,657; in 1860, 44,978; and in 1850 only 35.483. Of the inhabitants in 1900 no fewer than 43.761 (as against 20,928 in 1888 and 3155 in 1850) were not Swiss citizens, Germans numbering 31,125, Italians 5350, Austrians 4210, Russians 683, French 652. British subjects 157. and citizens of the United States 232. In 1900 there were in the town 140,803 German-speaking persons, by the Huguenot refugees from France (1682 and 1685). The 5100 Italian-speaking, 2586 French-speaking, and 415 Romonsch-value of the silk annually exported (mainly to France, the United speaking. In 1888 the corresponding figures were 90,500, 1135, States and England) is estimated at over three millions sterling. 1320, and 148. In 1900 the town numbered 102,794 Protestants, Zürich is the banking centre of Switzerland. Besides the excellent 43,655 Catholics" (Roman or “Old ") and 2713 Jews. In 1888 primary and secondary schools, there are the Cantonal School, the religious figures were 70,970, 20,571 and 1221 respectively, including a gymnasium and a technical side (opened 1842), and a while in 1850 the numbers were 32,763, 2664 and 56. The inter- high school for girls (opened 1875). The Cantonal University and national character of the town has thus become much more marked. the Federal Polytechnic School are housed in the same building. This is partly due to the immigration of many foreign workmen, but have no other connexion. The university was opened in 1833. and partly to the arrival of Russian and Polish exiles. Both have no doubt as a successor to the ancient chapter school at the Gross added a turbulent cosmopolitan element to the town, in which Münster said to date back to Charlemagne's time-hence its name the Socialist party is strong, and is increasing in power and influ- the Carolinum-reorganized at the Reformation, and suppressed ence, even in matters concerned with civic government. in 1832. The Polytechnic School, opened in 1855, includes seven ing, training of scientific and mathematical teachers, architecture, main sections (industrial chemistry, industrial mechanics, engineerforestry and agriculture, and the military sciences), besides a general philosophical and political science department. The Poly technic School has good collections of botanical specimens and of engravings. Near it is the observatory (1542 ft.). There are also in Zürich many institutions for special branches of educatione.g. veterinary surgery, music, industrial art, silk-weaving, &c. The earliest inhabitants of the future site of Zürich were the lake dwellers. The Celtic Helvetians had a settlement on the Lindenhof when they were succeeded by the Romans, who established a custom station here for goods going to and coming from Italy; during their rule Christianity was introduced early in the 3rd century by Felix and Regula, with whom Exuperantius was afterwards associated. The district was later occupied by the Alamanni, who were conquered by the Franks. The name Zürich is possibly derived from the Celtic dur (water). It is first mentioned in 807 under the form "Turigus," then in 853 as "Turegus." The true Latinized form is Turicum, but the false form Tigurum was given currency by Glareanus and held its ground from 1512 to 1748. It is not till the 9th century that we find the beginnings of the Teutonic town of Zürich, which arose from the union of four elements: (1) the royal house and castle on the Lindenhof, with the king's tenants around, (2) the Gross Münster, (3) the Frau Münster, (4) the community of " free men" (of Alamannian origin) on the Zürichberg. Similarly we can distinguish four stages in the constitutional development of the town: (i.) the gradual replacing (c. 1250) of the power of the abbess by that (real, though not nominal) of the patricians, (ii.) the admittance of the craft gilds (1336) to a share with the patricians in the government of the town, (iii.) the granting of equal political rights (1831) to the country districts, hitherto ruled as subject lands by the burghers, and (iv.) the reception as burghers of the numerous immigrants who had settled in the town (town schools opened in 1860, full incorporation in 1893). Of the old buildings the finest and most important is the Gross Münster (or Propstei), on the right bank of the Limmat. This was originally the church of the king's tenants, and in one of the chapels the bodies of Felix, Regula and Exuperantius, the patron saints of the city, were buried, the town treasury being formerly kept above this chapel. The present building was erected at two periods (c. 1090-1150 and c. 1225-1300), the high altar having been consecrated in 1278. The towers were first raised above the roof at the end of the 15th century and took their present form in 1779. The chapter consisted of twenty-four secular canons; it was reorganized at the Reformation (1526), and suppressed in 1832. On the site of the canons' houses stands a girls' school (opened 1853), but the fine Romanesque cloisters (12th and 13th centuries) still remain. There is a curious figure of Charlemagne in a niche on one of the towers; to him is attributed the founding or reform of the chapter. On the left bank of the Limmat stands the other great church of Zürich, the Frau Münster (or Abtei), founded for nuns in 853, by Louis the German. The high altar was consecrated in 1170; but the greater part of the buildings are of the 13th and 14th centuries. It was in this church that the relics of the three patron saints of the town were preserved till the Reformation, and it was here that the burgomaster Waldmann was buried in 1489. There were only twelve nuns of noble family, comparatively free from the severer monastic vows; the convent was suppressed in 1524. Of the other old churches may be mentioned St Peter's, the oldest parish church, though the present buildings date in part from the 13th century only (much altered in the early 18th century), and formerly the meeting-place of the citizens; the Dominican church (13th century), in the choir of which the cantonal library of 80,000 volumes has been stored since 1873; the church of the Austin friars (14th century), now used by the Old Catholics, and the Wasserkirche. The last-named church is on the site of a pagan holy place, where the patron saints of the city were martyred; The Frankish kings had special rights over their tenants, were since 1631 it has housed the Town Library, the largest in Switzer- the protectors of the two churches, and had jurisdiction over the land, which contains 170,000 printed volumes and 4500 MSS. free community. In 870 the sovereign placed his powers over (among these being letters of Zwingli, Bullinger and Lady all four in the hands of a single official (the Reichsvogt), and Jane Grey), as well as a splendid collection of objects from the the union was still further strengthened by the wall built round lake dwellings of Switzerland. The building itself was erected the four settlements in the 10th century as a safeguard against from 1479 to 1484, and near it is a statue of Zwingli, erected in Saracen marauders and feudal barons. The "Reichsvogtei " 1885. The existing town-hall dates from 1698, while the gild passed to the counts of Lenzburg (1063-1173), and then to the houses were mostly rebuilt in the 18th century. One of the dukes of Zähringen (extinct 1218). Meanwhile the abbess of most magnificent of the newer buildings is the Swiss National the Benedictine Frau Münster had been acquiring extensive Museum, behind the railway station. This museum, which rights and privileges over all the inhabitants, though she never was opened in 1898, contains a wonderful collection of Swiss obtained the criminal jurisdiction. The town flourished greatly antiquities (especially medieval) and art treasures of all kinds, in the 12th and 13th centuries, the silk trade being introduced some of which are placed in rooms of the actual date, removed from Italy. In 1218 the "Reichsvogtei" passed back into the from various ancient buildings. There are some fine old hands of the king, who appointed one of the burghers as his fountains (the oldest dating back to 1568). There are several deputy, the town thus becoming a free imperial city under the good bridges, Roman traces being seen in the case of the Nieder-nominal rule of a distant sovereign. The abbess in 1234 became brücke (now called the Rathausbrücke). The mound of the Lindenhof was formerly crowned by the king's house, which disappeared in the 13th century, and the hillock was planted with limes as early as 1422. The town is noted for its numerous clubs and societies, and is the intellectual capital of German-speaking Switzerland. Cottonspinning and the manufacture of machinery are two leading industries, but by far the most important is the silk-weaving industry. This flourished in Zürich in the 12th and 13th centuries, but disappeared about 1420; it was revived by the Protestant exiles (such as the Muralti and Orelli families) from Locarno (1555) and a princess of the empire, but power rapidly passed from her to the council which she had originally named to look after police, &c., but which came to be elected by the burghers, though the abbess was still " the lady of Zürich." This council (all powerful since 1304) was made up of the representatives of certain knightly and rich mercantile families (the “patricians "), who excluded the craftsmen from all share in the government, though it was to these last that the town was largely indebted for its rising wealth and importance. In October 1291 the town made an alliance with Uri and Schwyz, and in 1292 failed in a desperate attempt to seize the Habsburg town of Winterthur. After that Zürich began to display strong Austrian leanings, which characterize much of its later history. In 1315 the men of Zürich fought against the Swiss Confederates at Morgarten. The year 1336 marks the admission of the craftsmen to a share in the town government, which was brought about by Rudolf Brun, a patrician. Under the new constitution (the main features of which lasted till 1798) the Little Council was made up of the burgomaster and thirteen members from the " Constafel" (which included the old patricians and the wealthiest burghers) and the thirteen masters of the craft gilds, each of the twenty-six holding office for six months. The Great Council of 200 (really 212) members consisted of the Little Council, plus 78 representatives each of the Constafel and of the gilds, besides 3 members named by the burgomaster. The office of burgomaster was created and given to Brun for life. Out of this change arose a quarrel with one of the branches of the Habsburg family, in consequence of which Brun was induced to throw in the lot of Zürich with the Swiss Confederation (1st May 1351). The double position of Zürich as a free imperial city and as a member of the Everlasting League was soon found to be embarrassing to both parties (see SWITZERLAND). In 1373 and again in 1393 the powers of the Constafel were limited and the majority in the executive secured to the craftsmen, who could then aspire to the burgomastership. Meanwhile the town had been extending its rule far beyond its walls-a process which began in the 14th, and attained its height in the 15th century (1362-1467). This thirst for territorial aggrandizement brought about the first civil war in the Confederation (the. "Old Zürich War," 1436-50), in which, at the fight of St Jacob on the Sihl (1443), under the walls of Zürich, the men of Zürich were completely beaten and their burgomaster Stüssi slain. The purchase of the town of Winterthur from the Habsburgs (1467) marks the culmination of the territorial power of the city. It was to the men of Zürich and their leader Hans Waldmann that the victory of Morat (1476) was due in the Burgundian war; and Zürich took a leading part in the Italian campaign of 1512-15, the burgomaster Schmid naming the new duke of Milan (1512). No doubt her trade connexions with Italy led her to pursue a southern policy, traces of which are seen as early as 1331 in an attack on the Val Leventina and in 1478, when Zürich men were in the van at the fight of Giornico, won by a handful of Confederates over 12,000 Milanese troops. In 1400 the town obtained from the Emperor Wenceslaus the Reichsvogtei, which carried with it complete immunity from the empire and the right of criminal jurisdiction. As early as 1393 the chief power had practically fallen into the hands of the Great Council, and in 1498 this change was formally recognized. This transfer of all power to the gilds had been one of the aims of the burgomaster Hans Waldmann (1483-89), who wished to make Zürich a great commercial centre. He also introduced many financial and moral reforms, and subordinated the interests of the country districts to those of the town. He practically ruled the Confederation, and under him Zürich became the real capital of the League. But such great changes excited opposition, and he was overthrown and executed. His main ideas were embodied, however, in the constitution of 1498, by which the patricians became the first of the gilds, and which remained in force till 1798; some special rights were also given to the subjects in country districts. It was the prominent part taken by Zürich in adopting and propagating (against the strenuous opposition of the Constafel) the principles of the Reformation (the Frau Münster being suppressed in 1524) which finally secured for it the lead in the Confederation (see SWITZERLAND and ZWINGLI). The environs of Zürich are famous in military history on account of the two battles of 1799. In the first battle (4th June) the French under Masséna, on the defensive, were attacked by the Austrians under the Archduke Charles, Masséna retiring behind the Limmat before the engagement had reached a decisive stage. The second In the 17th and 18th centuries a distinct tendency becomes observable in the town government to limit power to the actual holders. Thus the country districts were consulted for the last time in 1620 and 1640; and a similar breach of the charters of 1489 and 1531 (by which the consent of these districts was required for the conclusion of important alliances, war and peace, and might be asked for as to other matters) occasioned disturbances in 1777. The council of 200 came to be largely chosen by a small committee of the members of the gilds actually sitting in the council-by the constitution of 1713 it consisted of 50 members of the Little Council (named for a fixed term by the Great Council), 18 members named by the Constafel, and 144 selected by the 12 gilds, these 162 (forming the majority) being co-opted for life by those members of the two councils who belonged to the gild to which the deceased member himself had belonged. Early in the 18th century a determined effort was made to crush by means of heavy duties the flourishing rival silk trade in Winterthur. It was reckoned that about 1650 the number of privileged burghers was 9000, while their rule extended over 170,000 persons. The first symptoms of active discontent appeared later among the dwellers by the lake, who founded in 1794 a club at Stäfa and claimed the restoration of the liberties of 1489 and 1531, a movement which was put down by force of arms in 1795. The old system of government perished in Zürich, as elsewhere in Switzerland, in February 1798, and under the Helvetic constitution the country districts obtained political liberty. The cantonal constitution was rather complicated, and under it the patrician party obtained a small working majority. That constitution was meant to favour the town as against the country districts. But under the cantonal constitution of 1814 matters were worse still, for the town (10,000 inhab.) had 130 representatives in the Great Council, while the country districts (200,000 inhab.) had only 82. A great meeting at Uster on the 22nd of November 1830 demanded that two-thirds of the members in the Great Council should be chosen by the country districts; and in 1831 a new constitution was drawn up on these lines, the town getting 71 representatives as against 141 allotted to the country districts, though it was not till 1837-38 that the town finally lost the last relics of the privileges which it had so long enjoyed as compared with the country districts. From 1803 to 1814 Zürich was one of the six "directorial cantons," its chief magistrate becoming for a year the chief magistrate of the Confederation, while in 1815 it was one of the three cantons, the government of which acted for two years as the Federal government when the diet was not sitting. In 1833 Zürich tried hard to secure a revision of the Federal constitution and a strong central government. The town was the Federal capital for 1839-40, and consequently the victory of the Conservative party there in 1839 (due to indignation at the nomination by the Radical government to a theological chair in the university of D. F. Strauss, the author of the famous Life of Jesus) caused a great stir throughout Switzerland. But when in 1845 the Radicals regained power at Zürich, which was again the Federal capital for 1845-46, that town took the lead in opposing the Sonderbund cantons. It of course voted in favour of the Federal constitutions of 1848 and of 1874, while the cantonal constitution of 1869 was remarkably advanced for the time. The enormous immigration from the country districts into the town from the thirties onwards created an industrial class which, though 'settled "in the town, did not possess the privileges of burghership, and consequently had no share in the municipal government. First of all in 1860 the town schools, hitherto open to all, next in 1875 ten years' residence ipso facto conferred the "settlers" only on paying high fees, were made accessible to right of burghership, while in 1893 the eleven outlying districts (largely peopled by working folk) were incorporated with the |