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LXXXIV.

GOVERNMENTS AND POPULATION.

1. Governments. - Europe contains four empires, Russia, Turkey, Germany, and Austria; two republics, France and Switzerland; twelve independent kingdoms, Norway, Sweden, Great Britain and Ireland, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece, Roumania, Servia, Denmark, Belgium, and the Netherlands; one independent principality, Montenegro, and one independent grand duchy, Luxemburg. Russia and Turkey are absolute, Germany, Austria, and the twelve kingdoms are limited monarchies.

Besides these, there are in the German Empire the kingdoms of Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, and Würtemberg; in the Austrian Empire, Bohemia, Galicia, Hungary, and Croatia and Slavonia; and in the Turkish Empire the principality of Bulgaria. Andorra in the Pyrenees, and San Marino in Italy, are small but old republics. 2. Population.-The total population of Europe is estimated at 360 millions, three fourths of it being in western Europe. It is nearly all Caucasian.

The three chief branches of the Caucasian race in Europe are the
Celts in the west, the Teutons from the Alps to Scotland and
northern Norway, and the Sclaves in the Great Plain.
The people of the eastern half of Europe belong mostly to the
Greek Church; those of the northwestern regions are princi-
pally Protestants; nearly all the rest, including more than half
the population, are Roman Catholics. Near the Black Sea are
several millions of Mohammedans.

3. Norway and Sweden. — Norway and Sweden occupy the Scandinavian peninsula. Norway is the smaller and more mountainous, and has less than one

half as many inhabitants as Sweden. The kingdoms are separate, but the same king rules over both.

4. The maritime commerce of Norway is extensive and important. The exports are lumber and fish.

5. In Sweden railways and a system of canals from the Baltic to the Cattegat unite the internal with the maritime commerce. The exports are grain, iron, and

copper.

6. Christiania, the capital of Norway, and Bergen, its largest Atlantic port, have a large trade in lumber and fish. Hammerfest, the most northern town in the world, is dependent upon the cod-fisheries. The Norwegian codfisheries are the greatest in the world.

Stockholm, the capital of Sweden, is situated on several small islands. Gottenburg is an important port and manufacturing city. Norrkoping is a grain port.

7. Russia.-The Russian Empire, next to that of Great Britain, is the most extensive dominion in the world. It includes about one half of Europe and more than one third of Asia. The monarch is called the Czar, or emperor. The inhabitants are mostly Sclaves.

[For remainder of Section LXXXIV., see page 90.]

LXXXV.

QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.

England and Wales.-What three countries on the island of Great Britain? What waters between Great Britain and Ireland? England and France? What island in the Irish Sea? What hills between England and Scotland? What mountains in Wales? What bay west of Wales? What two rivers flow into the North Sea? For what is the Thames remarkable? (For the largest maritime commerce in the world.) What river flows into the Bristol Channel? Into the Irish Sea? What city on the Thames? What port on the Humber? What city northwest of Hull? Southwest of York? West of Leeds? Near the mouth of the Mersey? South of Leeds? In the northern part of England? Near the centre? Near the Severn? What two cities east of Liverpool? On the south coast? In the southern part of Wales?

Scotland. What islands northwest of Scotland? What north groups of Scotland? What hills in Scotland? What peak of the Grampians is the highest in Great Britain? (Ben Nevis, 4370 feet.) What name is given to the bays of the coast of Scotland? (Firths.) Name the five chief firths of Scotland. What firth, hills, and river form the boundary between Scotland and England? What river flows into the Firth of Clyde? What canal in the northern part of Scotland? What three cities on or near the east coast? On or near the Clyde?

Ireland. What bays on the western coast of Ireland? Which is the largest river? What port in the northern part? In the northeastern?

Cities and Towns.-In what part of the country? How situated?— LONDON? Liverpool? Manchester? Birmingham? Leeds? Sheffield? Bristol? Bradford? Newcastle? Salford? Hull? Portsmouth? York? Plymouth? Merthyr Tydvil? Swansea? EDINBURGH? Glasgow? Dundee? Aberdeen? Paisley? Greenock? DUBLIN? Belfast? Cork? Londonderry? Galway? Limerick?

Islands. Where situated?-Man? Hebrides? Orkney? Shetland? Mountains. Where are they?-Grampian Hills? Cheviot Hills? Cambrian? Ben Nevis?

Seas, Gulfs, and Bays.- Where is it?-North Sea? Irish Sea? St. Georges Channel? English Channel? North Channel? Strait of Dover? Bristol Channel? Firth of Clyde? Firth of Forth? Solway Firth? Moray? Pentland? Cardigan Bay? Galway? Donegal ?

Rivers. Where does it rise? In what direction does it flow? Into what body of water ?-Thames? Severn? Mersey? Clyde? Shannon?

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8. The exports, in the order of their importance, are grains, flaxseed, lumber, wool, flax, hemp, and cattle. The chief foreign trade is with Great Britain and Germany.

9. The principal cities are St. Petersburg, the capital and larg est city and greatest commercial depot; Moscow, the ancient capital of Russia; and Warsaw, the chief city of Poland. The last two are manufacturing cities.

Riga and Cronstadt, on the Baltic, export grain, hemp, flax, and lumber; Odessa, on the Black Sea, is a great grain port; Astrakhan, on the Caspian, is noted for its fisheries and its caravan trade with Asia; Archangel, on the White Sea, exports oats, rye, flax, and forest prod

ucts.

Questions (I.)-1. How many and what empires in Europe? How many and what republics? How many and what kingdoms? Which are absolute monarchies? Which are limited?-2. What is the population of Europe? In what part is most of it? Of what race?-3. Where are Norway and Sweden? How does Norway compare with Sweden in size? In surface? In population? What political connection have they? 4. What is the commerce of Norway? What are its principal exports?-5. How

is the interior commerce of Sweden connected with the maritime? What are the exports?-6. What is said of Christiania? Bergen? Hammerfest? Of the fisheries of Norway? Of Stockholm? Gottenburg? Norrkoping?-7. What is said of the extent of the Russian Empire? What does it include? What is the title of the monarch? Of what race are most of the inhabitants?-8. What are the leading exports? With what countries is most of the foreign trade?-9. For Moscow? Warsaw? Riga and Cronstadt? Odessa?

what is St. Petersburg noted? Astrakhan? Archangel? (II.)-1. What kingdoms in the German Empire? In the Austrian? What small republic in Spain? What one in Italy? What is said of them?-2. What branches of the Caucasian race in Europe? What religions?

LXXXVII.

DESCRIPTION.

1. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland includes these two great islands and many neighboring small ones; it has also extensive colonial possessions in other parts of the world. The kingdom with its dependencies is generally called the British Empire.

The most important colonies are British America, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, British India, and Ceylon. Among its other possessions are Gibraltar, Malta, and Cyprus, in the Mediterranean Sea, South Africa, parts of the east and west coasts of Africa, with St. Helena, Mauritius, and other African islands, many of the West India Islands, and parts of Central and South America. 2. Occupations.-The chief wealth of Great Britain is in its manufactures, mines, and extensive maritime

commerce. Agriculture is carried to a high degree of perfection; in Ireland it is the leading occupation.

3. Minerals.-Great Britain supplies about one fourth of the coal, iron, salt, and tin used in the world, one eighth of the lead, and same of copper.

4. Manufactures.-It surpasses every other country of Europe in the amount and variety of manufactures. The most important are of cotton, wool, and iron.

5. Commerce.-It has a greater maritime commerce than any other nation.

It has at least 17,500 merchant vessels, and more than 230,000 seamen. They carry its manufactured products to every country on the globe, and bring in return food and raw materials. A large part of the food and two thirds of the raw cotton are obtained from the United States, which takes in return a greater quantity of manufactures than any other country. This commerce

is protected by the largest navy that has ever existed. Fortified naval depots for coal and provisions have been established on all the great routes of maritime trade. Among these depots are Gibraltar at the entrance, Malta in the middle, and Cyprus in

the empire; if opposed by a majority of the House of Commons, he resigns, and the sovereign appoints his successor.

Town, and Mauritius on the South African route, and Aden at the mouth of the Red Sea; Singapore at one end of the China Sea and Hong Kong at the other; Jamaica and other islands of the West Indies; Halifax, the Bermudas, and the Bahamas on the coasts of the United States; with many others in India and Australia, besides home depots.

it is also first in commercial importance; it covers 122 square miles. Liverpool has a very large foreign commerce, especially with the United States; Manchester manufactures more cotton goods than any other city;

The several countries of Europe, and in many instances parts of
the same country, differ widely in race, language, and religion.
There are also intense commercial and political rivalries. As
a result, mutual distrust and jealousy exist among the several
governments, and Europe has become one great camp.
time of professed peace between three and four millions of sol-
diers stand ready for war, and the military service is so arranged
that this vast number of armed men can be more than doubled
at the outbreak of hostilities. Besides all this, great navies, that
of Great Britain being the most powerful, are ready to extend
upon the sea the destruction which may at any time begin upon
the land.

These enormous armaments are maintained by a grinding taxation
and, in many countries, by a merciless conscription that with-
draws millions of young men for years from all productive in-
dustry. In consequence of this, in every part of Europe thou-
sands of women are obliged to work in the fields, and to en-
gage in other forms of the hardest and rudest labor.
In con-

trast with this state of affairs, the United States, though equal in
area to all Europe, has but a small navy and a widely scattered
army of about 25,000 men.

6. Government. - Great Britain is a constitutional monarchy.

The Legislature, or Parliament, has two branches-the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The members of the House of Commons are elected by the people. The executive power and the entire responsibility of the government are in the hands of a small body of men called the Ministry; they are appointed by the sovereign, through the influence of the Commons. The Prime Minister is practically the real ruler of

In Ireland, Dublin is the capital and largest city. Belfast manufactures more linen goods than any other city in the world. Cork and Limerick are also important cities.

Questions (I.)-1. What does the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland include? What other possessions has it? What is meant by the British Empire ? -2. In what does the chief wealth of Great Britain consist? What is said of agriculture?-3. Of the mines of Great Britain?-4. Of the manufactures? Name the most important.-5. What is said of the commerce ?-6. Of the government?-7. What is said of London? Liverpool? Manchester? Leeds and Bradford? Sheffield? Birmingham? Newcastle? Merthyr Tydvil and Swansea? Glasgow? Edinburgh? Dundee? Aberdeen? Dublin? Belfast? Cork and Limerick?

(II.) 1. Name the most important British colonies. What other possessions has the United Kingdom?-5. How many merchant vessels has Great Britain? How many seamen? In what are they engaged? With what country is the chief trade? How is the foreign commerce protected? How is the navy made effective? Name the depots. In what do the several countries of Europe differ? What rivalries exist? What is the result? What is said of the standing armies? Of the navies? What country of Europe has the most powerful navy? By what means are these armies and navies maintained? What is the consequence? What is said of the army and navy of the United States?-6. Describe the government of Great Britain.