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Questions. What does this section tell about?-1. What is geography?— 2. What is the shape of the earth? How does the earth appear to us? Why is this? -3. What is the first fact by which we know that the earth is a globe? The second fact? The third fact?-4. What is a diameter of a sphere? How long is the earth's diameter?-5. What is a circumference of a sphere? How long is the earth's circumference?-6. How many square miles in the surface of the earth?-7. What is the horizon? Which way is north, south, etc.?-8. Which are the cardinal points? The points between these?-6. Describe the compass.

*This is true only in the Northern Hemisphere.

The diameter on which the earth turns is called its axis. The time in which the earth turns on its axis is called a day.

3. The daily rotation causes the succession of day and night. Each place is carried into the sunlight, and then into the shade of the earth.

North Pole

4. The poles are the points at the ends of the axis. One is called the North Pole, the other the South Pole. 5. The swiftness of the rotation has caused the earth to be slightly flattened at the poles, and to bulge out a little midway between them. A globe flattened at the poles is called an oblate spheroid. The length of the earth's axis, or shortest diameter, is 7899 miles; the longest diameter is 7925 miles. The greatest circumference is 24,899 miles.

South Pole

NOTE.-The polar diameter is about one three-hundredth less than the equatorial. 6. The earth moves around the sun in a nearly circular path, called its orbit. The time in which the earth revolves around the sun is called a year. It contains nearly 365 days. This motion is called the annual

revolution.

7. The axis of the earth is inclined to its orbit. This inclination never changes.

8. The annual revolution of the earth and the inclination of its axis cause the change of the seasons.

Questions. What does this section tell about?-1. How many motions has the earth? What are they?-2. What is the daily motion of the earth? In what direction is it? How does the sun appear to move? Why does it appear to rise and set? What is the axis of the earth? What is a day?-3. What is caused by the daily rotation of the earth?-4. What are the poles? What are they called?-5. What effect has the swiftness of the rotation? What name is given to the true shape of the earth? What is an oblate spheroid? How many miles difference between the longest and the shortest diameter? How long is the greatest circumference ?-6. What other motion has the earth? What is the shape of its path? Its name? What is a year? How long is it?-7. What is the position of the earth's axis? Does the inclination change?-8. What cause the change of the seasons?

THE CIRCLES OF THE EARTH.-LATITUDE.-LONGITUDE.-ZONES.

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III.

THE CIRCLES OF THE EARTH.

1. The circles of the earth are lines imagined to be drawn on its surface.

These circles are of two kinds-great circles and small circles.

2. A great circle is one that divides the earth into two equal parts. Each of these parts is called a hemisphere, which means a half-sphere.

3. A small circle is one that divides the earth into

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Questions (I.)-1. What are the circles of the earth? How many kinds of circles? What are they?-2. What is a great circle? What is a hemisphere?-3. What is a small circle?-4. How is every circle divided? How are degrees divided? How are minutes divided?-5. What is the Equator? Into what does it divide the earth?6. What are meridian circles? Into what does each divide the earth?-7. What is a meridian?-8. What are parallels? Which are the principal parallels.-9. What are the tropics? Give the name of each ?-10. What are the polar circles? Give the name of each?

(II.)-Read 32° 15' 47"; 49° 11' 37". Which is larger, a degree of the Equator or of a tropic? Why? Of the Equator or of a meridian? Why? Of a tropic or of the Arctic Circle? Why? Which is the greater, the Eastern Hemisphere or the Northern? Why? How many meridian circles may there be? How many Equators? How many parallels? How many meridians?

tor.

IV.

LATITUDE.-LONGITUDE.-ZONES.

1. Latitude is distance north or south from the EquaIt is measured, in degrees, on a meridian. Places between the Equator and the North Pole are in north latitude; those between the Equator and the South Pole are in south latitude; those on the Equator have no latitude. The poles have the greatest possible latitude, which is 90 degrees.

2. Longitude is distance east or west from a selected. meridian. It is measured, in degrees, on the Equator or any parallel. The selected meridian is called the first meridian.

The meridian in most common use is that which passes through Greenwich Observatory, near London. In the United States the meridian of Washington is sometimes used; in France that of Paris; in Germany that of Berlin; etc.

Places on the first meridian have no longitude. The greatest longitude is 180 degrees, east or west.

A degree of any great circle measures 60 geographical miles, or about 69 statute miles of the United States. A degree on the parallel of 60° is just half as long.

3. Zones are broad belts or divisions of the earth's surface parallel to the Equator. They are bounded by the tropics and the polar circles.

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4. There are five zones: one Torrid, two Temperate, and two Frigid Zones.

5. The Torrid Zone extends from the Tropic of Cancer to the Tropic of Capricorn.

Torrid means hot. This zone is the hottest part of the earth, because the sun is always shining directly down upon some part of it. It is 47 degrees wide, or 23 degrees on each side. of the Equator, and is the largest zone.

6. The North Frigid Zone extends from the Arctic Circle to the North Pole.

The South Frigid Zone extends from the Antarctic Circle to the South Pole.

Frigid means frozen. The Frigid Zones are the coldest parts of the earth, because the sun shines upon each of them during only a part of the year, and with very slanting rays. Each extends 23 degrees from the pole at its centre. They are the smallest, least important, and least known of the zones. The South Frigid Zone is not known to have one human inhabitant.

7. The North Temperate Zone extends from the Arctic Circle to the Tropic of Cancer.

The South Temperate Zone extends from the Antarctic Circle to the Tropic of Capricorn.

Temperate means moderate. Each of the Temperate Zones is 43 degrees wide. The North Temperate Zone is the most important portion of the world. It contains nearly three fourths of the human race.

NOTE.-The axis of the earth is inclined 23 degrees towards its orbit. This determines the breadth of the several zones, the tropics being 23 degrees from the Equator, and the polar circles being 23 degrees from the Poles. The four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter, are found only in the Temperate Zones.

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Questions (I.)-1. What is latitude? How is it measured? On what? In what directions? What places are in north latitude? In south latitude? What places have no latitude? What places have the greatest latitude? How many degrees?2. What is longitude? How is it measured? On what? In what directions? What is the name of the meridian from which longitude is reckoned? What places have no longitude? What is the greatest longitude a place can have?-3. What are zones? By what are they bounded?-4. How many zones are there? Name them.-5. Where is the Torrid Zone ?-6. The North Frigid? The South Frigid?-7. The North Temperate Zone? The South Temperate Zone? Which zones have four seasons during the year?

(II.)-2. What meridian is in most common use? What meridian is sometimes used in the United States? In England? In France? In Germany?-3. How many miles in a degree of a great circle? On the parallel of 60°?-5. Which is the hottest

zone? Why? What does its name mean? How wide is it? What great circle passes through the middle of it?-6. Which zones are the coldest parts of the earth? Why? What does their name mean? What point in the centre of each? How wide are they?-7. How wide are the Temperate Zones? What does their name mean?Which is the largest zone? The smallest? The hottest? The least important? Why? The most important? Why? Where are the coldest parts of the Temperate Zones? Where are the warmest parts?

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1. The surface of the earth may be represented by globes and maps.

2. A globe is a sphere representing the form of the earth, its circles, and the principal divisions of the land and water.

3. A map is a representation of the whole or a part of the earth's surface on a plane.

A plane is a flat surface. The surface of a sphere can not be exactly represented upon a plane. Small portions of the earth's surface can be more correctly represented upon maps than very large ones.

4. Parallels cross the map from side to side; meridians, from top to bottom. East is in the direction of the parallels towards the right; west, towards the left. North is in the direction of the meridians towards the top; south, towards the bottom.

5. Figures showing the latitude are placed on the sides of the map; those showing the longitude are placed at the top and the bottom.

EXCEPTION. In the maps of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres the longitude is marked on the Equator. Questions (I.)-1. How may the surface of the earth be represented?-2. What is a globe?-3. What is a map?-4. How are parallels represented upon a map? How are meridians represented? Which way is east? West? North? South?5. Where are the figures showing the latitude placed? Those showing the longitude? What exception?

(II.)-3. What is a plane? Can the surface of a sphere be exactly represented upon a map? Why? (Experiment with the peel of half of an orange.) Which can be made the more accurate, a map of a large portion of the earth's surface or one of a small portion? Why? Which represents the earth with more exactness, a globe or a map? Why?

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AUSTRALIA

1. The surface of the earth con

sists of land and

water. About one fourth is land, and about three fourths water.

The Northern Hemi

sphere contains about three times as much land as the Southern; the Eastern Hemisphere about two and a half times as much as the WestThe earth may be so divided that nearly all the land would be in

ern.

1. Island. 2. Peninsula. 3. Bay.

4. Strait.

NATURAL DIVISIONS OF LAND AND WATER.

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5. Isthmus.

9. Lake.

6. Archipelago.

10. Sound.

13. Mountain. 14. Mountain Range.

7. River.

15. Table-land.

8. Delta.

16. Plain.

11. Hill. 12. Crater.

A coast or shore is the land bordering on the water. often broken by peninsulas and capes.

17. Shore.. 18. Cape.

19. Volcano.

20. Sea.

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Coasts are

9. An isthmus is a neck of land connecting two

one hemisphere, larger bodies of land.

and the other would be nearly all water.

2. The land surface of the earth is divided into continents and islands. 3. A continent is a very large body of land.

4. There are six continents. Four are in the Eastern Hemisphere-Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. Two are in the Western Hemisphere - North America and South America.

The three large continents of the Eastern Hemisphere are joined into one great land-mass called the Old World (see map on page 4). The united continents of the Western Hemisphere form the New World. It is so called because discovered only a few centuries ago. Some geographers call the Old World the Eastern Continent, and the New World the Western Continent or the American Continent.

5. An island is a body of land entirely surrounded by water.

Australia, the smallest continent, is much larger than the largest island. The chief distinction between a continent and an island is the difference in size.

6. An archipelago is a group of islands.

7. A peninsula is a body of land nearly surrounded by water.

8. A cape is a point of land extending into the water. A mountainous cape is called a promontory. A cape is usually much smaller than a peninsula.

Questions (I.)-1. Of what does the surface of the earth consist? How much is land? How much is water?-2. How is the land surface divided?-3. What is a continent?-4. How many continents are there? How many in the Eastern Hemisphere? Name them. How many in the Western Hemisphere? Name them.— 5. What is an island?-6. What is an archipelago?-7. What is a peninsula ?-8. What is a cape?-9. What is an isthmus ?

(II.)—1. Which has the more land, the Northern Hemisphere or the Southern? How many times as much? The Eastern Hemisphere or the Western? How many times as much? What is meant by the land hemisphere ?-4. What is meant by the Old World? What other name is given to it by some geographers? What is meant

by the New World? Why so called? What other name has it?-5. How does the smallest continent compare with the largest island? What is the chief distinction between a continent and an island?-7. What is a promontory? What is the chief difference between a cape and a peninsula? What is a coast or shore? By what are coasts broken?

VII.

ELEVATIONS OF THE LAND.

1. The chief elevations of the land surface are mountains, table-lands or plateaus, and lowland plains.

Mountains and plateaus are sometimes called highlands. The height of elevations is reckoned from the surface or level of the sea.

2. A mountain is a very high elevation of land.

If the elevation is not very high, it is usually called a hill.
The summit of a mountain is its highest point; the base is its
foot; the slopes are its sides.

3. A range or chain is a line of mountains or hills.

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ELEVATIONS OF THE LAND.-DIVISIONS OF THE WATER.-DIVISIONS OF GEOGRAPHY.

4. A volcano is a mountain which sends forth flames, melted rock, clouds of steam, ashes, or other heated substance, from an opening called a crater.

5. A table-land or plateau is a broad extent of high land.

Table-lands are often crossed or bordered by mountain ranges. The breadth of a mountain is generally less than that of a plateau.

6. A lowland plain is a broad extent of land not much above the level of the sea.

A valley is land between hills or mountains. A desert is a barren tract of land. An oasis is a low fertile spot in a desert. 7. The natural divisions of the land are continents and islands. Their shores have peninsulas, capes, and isthmuses; their surfaces have mountains, plateaus, and lowland plains.

If we imagine a division of land to be cut through from side to side and down to the level of the sea, the outline representing the edges of such a cut is called a section.

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7. The drainage waters, or waters on the surface of the land, are rivers and lakes.

8. A river is a large stream of fresh water.

A river flowing into another is called a branch or tributary. The place where a river begins or rises is its source; the place where it flows into a sea, lake, or another river is its mouth.

9. A lake is a body of water wholly or nearly surrounded by land.

10. The natural divisions of the water are oceans, rivers, and lakes. The subdivisions or arms of the ocean are called seas, gulfs, bays, sounds, straits, and channels.

Questions (I.)-1. Into what two great divisions may the waters be divided?— 2. What is the ocean? To what else is the name given? Name them.-3. What is a sea? What is the ocean sometimes called?-4. What is a gulf or bay?—5. A strait or channel?—6. An ocean current?-7. Which are the drainage waters?—8. What is a river?—9. What is a lake?-10. Name the natural divisions of the water. What are the subdivisions or arms of the ocean called?

(II.) 4. What three names are sometimes given to similar bodies of water? Why? What is a haven or harbor?-5. What is a sound?-8. What name is given to a river flowing into another? What is the source of a river? The mouth?

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Questions (I.)—1. Name the three chief elevations of the land.-2. What is a mountain ?—3. A range or chain?-4. A volcano? A crater?-5. A table - land or plateau?-6. A lowland plain ?—7. What are the natural divisions of the land? What projections have their shores? What elevations have their surfaces?

(II.)—1. What are mountains and plateaus sometimes called? From what are their heights reckoned?—2. What is a hill? What is the summit of a mountain? The base? The slopes?-5. Which is broader, a mountain or a plateau? By what are table-lands sometimes crossed or bordered?-6. What is a valley? A desert? An oasis?-7. What is a section?

VIII.

DIVISIONS OF THE WATER.

1. The waters on the surface of the earth are divided into ocean waters and drainage waters.

2. The ocean is the great body of salt water that surrounds all of the continents. Its five principal divisions are also called oceans: namely, the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Indian, the Arctic, and the Antarctic Oceans.

3. A sea is a large division of the ocean nearly enclosed by land. The ocean itself is sometimes called the sea. 4. A gulf or bay is a body of water in a bend of the

coast.

As there is but little difference between seas, gulfs, and bays, these names are sometimes given to similar bodies of water. A haven or harbor is a small bay in which ships are safe from storms. 5. A strait or channel is a narrow passage connecting

two larger bodies of water.

A sound is a shallow channel or bay.

IX.

DIVISIONS OF GEOGRAPHY.

1. Geography may be divided into Mathematical Geography, Physical Geography, and Political Geography.

2. Mathematical Geography is a description of the form, size, position, motions, circles, and zones of the earth, and of the relative positions of places on its surface.

3. Physical Geography is a description of the nat ural divisions of the surface of the earth.

It treats, first, of its simplest divisions into land, water, and atmosphere; second, of the position, distribution, and extent of the land and water, and of the great currents in the water and in the atmosphere; third, of the character of the climates in different parts of the earth, and the distribution of minerals, plants, and animals; and, fourth, of the laws, causes, mutual relations, and consequences of these facts, and of many of those of Mathematical Geography.

4. Political Geography is a description of the nations and peoples of the earth, their social condition, and the countries they inhabit.

It includes an account of towns, cities, states, industrial productions, and commerce. The Political Geography of a country is so closely dependent upon its Physical Geography that the two should be studied together.

Questions (I.)—1. How may Geography be divided?-2. What is Mathematical Geography?—3. What is Physical Geography?—4. What is Political Geography?

(II.)—3. Of what does the first part of Physical Geography treat? The second? The third? The fourth?-4. What does Political Geography include? Upon what is it dependent?

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