122

How is the earth known to be a globe? What has caused it to be flattened at the poles? What is the length of the polar diameter? Of the equatorial diameter? Of the circumference? Describe the general physical condition of the earth. (Ans. The earth is by many supposed to be a slowly cooling and shrinking ball of matter, which was once entirely in a molten state. Its cooled and hardened crust is comparatively thin, and is the surface upon which we live. Mountain ranges are the folds, ridges, and lines of fracture of the crust. The broad hollows of the surface are partly filled by the ocean. Volcanoes are openings to the still melted interior of the earth, and are mostly found upon the lines of fracture.) What evidences have we of the heat of the interior of the earth? (Ans. Volcanoes, hot-springs, earthquakes, and the gradual increase of heat with the depth in deep borings and mines.)

Name the two great land masses. What is the position of the line of direction of each? How many continents in each? What separate continent is there? Name the six continents in the order of their size. How are most of the islands arranged? How many classes of islands are there? What are continental islands? Where are the principal chains? What are oceanic islands? Where are the principal chains? What are volcanic islands? Coral islands? Where chiefly found? Name two of each class of islands.

What is a mountain system? Where is the longest system in the world?* What is its direction? Where is it highest? Name the principal mountain chains of North America. Of South America. Where is the chief mountain system of the Old World? Where is it highest? Name the principal mountain chains of Asia. Of Europe. Of Africa. Of Australia. Where are most of the volcanoes of North America? In what countries? Where are the volcanoes of South America? What island chains of Asia abound in volcanoes? What can you say of the volcanoes of Malaysia? (Ans. They are more numerous than in any other equal area in the world.) What volcanoes complete the "fire circle" of the Pacific? (Ans. Those of Melanesia and New Zealand.) What oceanic islands of the Pacific contain volcanoes? Which has the greatest crater in the world? What volcanoes are in the Mediterranean Sea? In Iceland?

What is a plateau? Which continent has the greatest proportion of plateau surface? Which the least? Where are the great plateaus found in each continent? Describe the great plateau belt of North America. How high is it? What great mountain system rests upon it? Through what countries does it extend? Describe the Eastern Highland. What mountain system does it contain? Name some of the ranges. Where is the highest plateau belt of South America? What countries lie wholly or partly in it? In which is it highest and broadest? How high is it? What mountain system rests upon it? In what country is the broadest plateau of South America? Is it high or low? What mountains does it contain? Where is the chief highland belt of Europe? What countries lie wholly or partly in it? Which are its chief mountain chains? For what are the plateaus of Asia remarkable? In what parts of the continent are they? Name some of them. Which is the highest? How high is it? What mountain chains rest upon these plateaus? Which is the highest plateau of Africa? What mountains rest upon it? What can you say of the plateaus of Australia?

What is a lowland plain? Where is the great low plain of North America? By what is it divided? Into what two plains? Which way does each plain slope? How can you tell this by the map? What plain east of the Appalachian Mountains? Where is the great low plain of South America? Name its three principal divisions. What countries lie wholly or partly in each? Describe the llanos. The selvas. The pampas. Where is the great plain of Europe? What mountain walls partly enclose it? What countries lie wholly or partly in it? What other plains in Europe? In what countries? Where is the great lowland plain of Asia? With what other plain connected? What countries are in it? What great lakes in its western part? What plains in other parts of Asia? For what are the plains of China and Hindostan remarkable? In what part of Africa are the plains?

Name the five chief divisions of the ocean. Which are the three great oceans? Which is the largest? For what else remarkable? The Atlantic? The Indian? The Arctic? The Antarctic? Name the chief islands, border seas, and gulfs of the Pacific. Of the Atlantic. Of the Indian. From what level are all heights estimated? What can you say of it? (Ans. After allowing for the temporary effects of tides, winds, etc., the surface of the sea stands at the same level in all parts of the world.) What are ocean currents? What can you say of their extent? Of their causes? Name some of the principal currents. Of what use are they? Describe the equatorial currents. The Gulf Stream. The Japan Stream. The polar currents.

How high does the atmosphere extend? Where is it most dense? Why? At what height does plant life cease? Why? What can you say of the composition of the atmosphere and of the use of each part? (Ans. The atmosphere consists chiefly of a mixture of three gases. Dry air contains about one fifth part oxygen, nearly four fifths nitrogen, and about one five-hundredth part carbonic acid. There is also a variable quantity of watery vapor, which is the source of all rains and dews. The oxygen is the vital element in the breath of animals, but would destroy life if it were not so greatly

For mountains, plateaus, and plains, consult the physical maps and the sections of the continents.

diluted with nitrogen. Carbonic acid furnishes all plants with carbon, of which they are chiefly composed.) What is the chief source of the watery vapor? What are the effects of the heat of the sun upon air? In what zone are these effects the most powerful? What are winds? Describe the trade-winds. The counter-trades. In what respects are winds similar to ocean currents? Of what uses are winds? What is climate? Upon what does it chiefly depend? How affected by latitude? By elevation? By sea winds? By land winds? By ocean currents? By distance from the sea? What is meant by the annual rain-fall of a country? In which zone is it greatest? Describe the tropical rain-belt. How does it affect climate and vegetation? How do high mountains affect climate? What is the chief cause of deserts? Where is the great desert belt? What states or countries in each continent have a very dry

climate?

What is a river system? A basin or valley? What great rivers flow into the Arctic Ocean? What plains do they drain? What great rivers flow into the Atlantic and its seas, etc.? What plains or what plateaus do they drain? Which is the most extensive river system of North America? Name some of the principal branches.

Of South America? The chief branches? What great rivers flow into the Indian Ocean? What plains or what plateaus do they drain? Into the Pacific? What plains or plateaus do they drain? What rivers of Europe and Asia do not flow into the ocean? Into what do they flow? Why are such lakes salt? Are there any salt lakes in the United States? Where? In any other part of the world? Where? Where is the Dead Sea? For what remarkable? In which continents are the two chief systems of fresh-water lakes? With what rivers and ocean are they connected? What is meant by "perpetual snow?" By the "snow-line?" How does its height vary? What are glaciers? How formed? Where found in Europe? In Asia? In North America? What is Greenland supposed to be? (Ans. An archipelago in which both land and sea are filled with glaciers.) What are icebergs? How formed? (See page 15.) (Another cause is that the lower ends of arctic and antarctic glaciers are sometimes pushed forward along the sea-bottom and into very deep water. Being lighter than the salt water, they have a tendency to float, and thus break off.)

Upon what does the character of vegetable life chiefly depend? (Ans. Upon climate and soil.) Where is the principal forest region of North America? What parts of it abound in pines and firs? Where are the prairie regions? What vegetation is found on the great western plains? Near the shores of the Arctic Ocean? Where is the western forest region? Which are its principal trees? Where are the largest trees in the world? What is the character of the vegetation of the West Indies and the low parts of Central America? Name some of its trees. Where are the grassy regions of South America? The desert regions? The great forest region? Name some of its most useful trees. The chief forest regions of Europe? Of Asia? Name some Asiatic plants. Where is the principal forest belt of Africa?

Name the chief food plants of the temperate regions of North America. Of the warmer regions and the West Indies. Of South America. Of southern Europe. Of the rest of Europe. Of southern Asia. Of Africa. Of Australia. Which is the principal grain of the world? (Ans. Rice; it supports more than one third of the human race.)

Name some quadrupeds found in the colder parts of North America.* What other quadrupeds are found in that continent? Name its largest reptile. The most remarkable birds. The most remarkable quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles of South America. Some of the quadrupeds of northern Europe. Of other parts of Europe. From what continent were most of our domestic animals originally derived? Name some of the most remarkable animals of northern Asia. Of desert Asia. Of southern Asia. What peculiarity have most of the Australian quadrupeds? Name some of the pouched animals. Some of the birds of Australia and their peculiarities. How is Africa remarkable in regard to its animals? Name some of them.

Name the five races of mankind. Which two are the most numerous? Which is the least? What part of mankind is comprised in each of the five races? Where is the Caucasian race found? The Mongol? The Ethiopian? The Malay? The American? For what is the Caucasian race distinguished? What races are found in North America? In what part of the continent are the Caucasians chiefly found? Of what race are the Esquimaux? (Ans. Mongol.) Where are they? (Ans. On the shores of Alaska and of the Arctic Ocean.) The Ethiopians? The Americans? What two races occupy Europe? Which are the chief European branches of the Caucasian race? Where are the Celts? The Teutons? The Sclaves? To which branch do the Irish belong? The Welsh ? The Germans? The English? The Russians? What peoples of Europe are Mongols? (Ans. Lapps, Finns, Turks, and Magyars.) What three races occupy Asia? What mountains separate the Mongols from the Caucasians? Of what race are the Persians? The Chinese? The Arabs? The Hindoos? The Japanese? The Tartars? In what part of the continent is the Malay race found? In what archipelago is the greater part of that race? What two races occupy Africa? Which is the more numerous? In what part is the Ethiopian race? The Caucasian?

* In the illustrations the animals of each continent are arranged in the general order of their latitude.

Order of the Maps.—To obtain the best results it is advised that the maps be taken in the following order: 1. The several states of the United States; 2. Groups of states; 3. The continents; 4. Separate countries of Europe; 5. The United States; 6. The hemispheres.

Materials and Conveniences.-1. Suitable paper. 2. Lead-pencils-No. 2 will generally be found the best for the work; keep sharp with fine file. 3. Rulerone with a scale is best. 4. A flexible ruler will be found convenient, but is not indispensable; it should be a thin and narrow strip of cedar, or some other even-grained wood; a good piece of whalebone may be made to answer. 5. Dividers are convenient, but may be dispensed with. 6. Ink for going over the penciled coast-lines, and all other details; India ink is the best. 7. Colors: three colors-blue, yellow, and red-are indispensable; by proper mixtures of these all other necessary colors may be made. 8. Brushes, or hair-pencils, of different sizes, for laying on the colors -two or three are enough. It is also important to have two or more right-angled rulers of different sizes, for making true corners to the maps, etc. They may be readily constructed of cardboard in the following manner :

It will often be necessary to divide a straight line into a certain number of equal parts.

1. To divide a line into 2, 4, 8, or 16 equal parts, when you have neither scale nor dividers: take a strip of writing-paper having a straight edge and just as long as the line to be divided; fold it very carefully once for halves, twice for fourths, etc., and then measure and mark these divisions upon the line.

2. To divide a straight line into any number of equal parts. Suppose A B to be the line, and that it is to be divided into five equal parts.

Many plans have been devised to facilitate the accurate copying of maps. The simplest and most efficient is the method of equal squares. It has long been used in copying maps, pictures, plans, etc. The following example will sufficiently illustrate the method:

To draw the Map of North America.-1. Divide the map into equal squares. Divide the upper and lower inner margins into four equal parts, marking the points lightly in lead-pencil. Commencing at the upper corners, measure off on the right and left margins distances equal to the divisions of the upper and lower margins. Connect each point with the point opposite by a lightly drawn pencil line. Observe that one of these lines is the central meridian of the map. The map is now divided into twenty equal squares and four parts of squares. These last may be omitted in drawing, if it be thought desirable. If retained, notice that they are about one quarter as wide as they are long.

divide it into four equal parts. At the ends of this line draw two others at right angles to it, and measure off upon each five parts equal to those of the upper line; join the opposite points, and complete the diagram as before. Let all the lines be drawn lightly, so as to be easily removed with the rubber.

3. To copy the map, begin with the upper left-hand square, and draw the outlines lightly in pencil, being careful to observe in what parts of the square they are to be, and where they cross the sides of the square, and so proceed with each square. While drawing, rest your hand upon a piece of paper, so as not to soil your map. Always work from above downward. If very great accuracy is desired, subdivide each of the squares, both of the original and the copy, into four or more smaller squares, and proceed as before. The greater the number of squares, the more accurate may the copy be made. To prevent mistakes, it is desirable to number or letter the squares in some regular order.

If the meridians and parallels are to be inserted, mark lightly the places where

2

3

4.

5

4

they cross the sides of the squares, and draw them either with the flexible ruler or with the free hand.

In drawing the outlines, include only the coasts, islands, lakes, rivers, and the boundaries of countries. To fill in the details and complete the map, observe the following order:

1. Go over the meridians, parallels, and outlines slowly and carefully with a fine pen; use thin India ink. 2. Draw the mountains.-Use the lead-pencil. Practice first on a piece of paper: observe that the lines used are very fine; that they are divergent, not parallel; that they are in small groups, each of which has a blank space in the middle; that the higher mountains have two or three sets of lines and are darker near the blank centre. 3. Letter the map.-Use the lead-pencil. Practice first on paper: be very careful as to spacing the letters, and use the simplest styles. Begin with the names which are in large capitals; then insert the names of lakes, rivers, cities, capes, etc. As far as possible let the lines of letters follow the direction of the parallels. Go over mountains and letters with ink. Clear all pencil marks from the map before coloring. 4. Color the map.-Use only clean water to mix the colors. Do not color too strongly. If the first coat is too weak when dry, add another. To avoid drawing pencil lines across the engraved map.-This may readily be done in any one of several ways. The following is the easiest and best: Procure at the stationer's a sheet of gelatine paper, such as is used in copying plans, etc. It is nearly as transparent as glass. The piece used may be of the same size as the map in the book, or it may be of one half or even of one quarter of that size. If of the full size, rule it into squares, as directed in 2. Blacken the lines carefully with ink, and let them dry, and repeat the process if necessary. To use this sheet lay it upon the map with the lines upon the under side, so that the central meridian and margins of the map exactly correspond with the lines upon the paper.

If a sheet of one half or one quarter the size is used, each large square must be divided into four smaller ones. Lay it upon the map so that its edges correspond with the central meridian and the margins, and, after drawing that half or fourth of the map, follow the same plan with the remaining portions.

Another method, very suitable for home work, is to use a small pane of glass of the half size or quarter size, and ruled into squares with a common pen filled with ordinary black paint mixed with varnish. Or the ruling may be done with a diamond, and the lines blackened. Use with the ruled side down. Still another plan is to make a frame of cardboard, or some other suitable material, and divide the enclosed space into squares by means of fine threads or wires.

Additional Hints.-Never begin to draw a line until you have carefully made up your mind as to just where it is to be and what it is to be. Small squares will be found best for maps of separate states. Observe that the meridians are not the same distance apart at the top of the map

as at the bottom, and that only one of them is a perfectly straight line.

It will be useful to remember that a degree on the central meridian is about seventy miles.

The single-page maps in this book are all of one size, but are not drawn on the same scale.

Total...

14,860,261

18,595,837

98,740 58,466

79,328 2,706 186,698 59,699

75,575,943

15.440

11,205,894

40,805

20.092,845

785,548

9,245,561

1,545.789

1,051,183

85.535 100.300

317,636

..Aut arctic.

An te cos' te.
An tee' tam.

Au teelz'.

An te o kee' a.

.Aut' werp. Ap' en uiuz. ..A posl.

Ap pa la' che an. .Ap pa lach' e.

Ap pa lach e co' la.

Ap po mat' tox. ..Ar' ab.

Ar a gway'.

Ar' al.

Ar' a rat.

Ark ane' jel.
.Ark e pel' a go.
Ar den'.
.Ah ray kee'
Arjen tine.
Ar ghyle'.
A ree' ca.

.Arizona.

pa.

Ar' kan saw.
Arn' hime.
.A roos' took.

. As cen' shun.
Ash an tee'.
.Ash ta bu' la.

..A' she a.

As' pin wall.
..As sin' i boin.
As tra kan'.
Ah soon se one'.
At a cah' ma.
At bah' ra.
.Atch a fa li' a.
.Atch'e son.
Ath a bas' ca.
A' tol.

Aw' burn.
Awk' land.
Aw gusta.
Awgs' burg.
Aw ro' ra.
O sah'b'l.
Aws' ter litz.
..Aws tra' le a.

.O vairn'.

.Ah veen yong'.

..Az' of.

A zōrz'.

Babl' bec.

Avignon.. Avon. Azof Azores.

.A' von.

Baalbec

Babylon...

Badajos.

Bagdad

Baden..

Bahama. Bahia Bahrein. Baikal Balaklava. Balearic.... Balkan.. Balkash

Bab' e lon.

Bad a hose'.

..Bab' den.

.Bag dad'.

Ba ha' ma. .Bah ee' a. Bah rine'. Bi' kal. Bal a klah' va. Balearic. Bal kan'. Bahl kahsh'.

Ballston Spa
Balmoral.
Baltic
Baltimore
Banca.
Bangor.

Banjermassin.
Bankok.
Baranoff
Barbadoes

Barbary.
Barbuda

Barcelona.
Barfleur..

Barnaul.
Barnegat..
Basle.
Bassorah..
Bathurst..
Baton Rouge.
Bavaria.
Bayoune
Bayou Sara
Beaufort
Beaufort
Bedouin..
Behring.
Beirut..
Belfast.
Belgium
Belgrade.
Belize
Belle Isle..
Beloit.

Beloochistan.

Benares.
Bencoolen
Benevento
Bengal..
Bengazi.
Benguela..
Benicia....
Ben Lomond.

Ben Nevis..
Berbera.

Bergen..

Berlin.

Bermuda.

Berne..

Besançon..

Bilboa Bingen.. Birmingham Biscay Blanco.

Blanquilla..
Blenheim
Bogota..
Boise..
Bojador.
Bokhara..
Bolivar.
Bolivia.
Bologna..
Bombay.
Bonifacio..
Boothia.
Bordeaux

Borgne...
Bornholm

Ba ran' off.

Bar ba' doze.

Bar ba ry.
Bar bu' da.
Bar ce lo'na.
Bar l'yure'.

Bar now'.

Bar' ue gat.
Bahl,

Bas' so ra.
Bath'erst.

Bah t'n Roozh'.

Ba va' re a.

Bah you'.

Bi' oo Sa' ra.

B: fort (S. C.). Bo' fort (Af.). Bed oo een'.

Beer' ing.

Bi' root.
Bel fast'.

Bel' je um.
.Bel grade'.

. Be leez'.

Bel lle'.

Be loit'.

Be loo chis tan'.

Be nah' res.
Ben coo' len.
Ben e ven' to.
Ben gawl'.
Ben gah' ze.
Ben ga' la.

Be nish'e a.
Ben Lo' moud.

Ben Ne' vis.
Ber be' ra.

Ber' gen.
Berlin'.

Ber mu' da.
Bern.

Bay zahng' song.

Bil bo' a.
Bing' en.
.Bir ming ham.
Biscay.
.Blang ko.
Blahn keel' ya.
Blen' hime.
Bo go tah'.
Bwah za'.
Bod ja dore'
Bok hah' ra.
Bol'e var.
Bo liv' e a.
Bo lone' ya.

Bom bay'.
.Bon e fah' cho.

Boo' the a.

Bore do'.

Born. ....Born' holme.

Bos' po rus.

Bos' ton.

Both' ne a.

Bo'ling Green.

Boulogue

.Boo lone'.

Bowling Green..

Boyne...

Brandenburg.

Boin.

Brahmapootra....... ... Brah ma poo' tra.

Braunfels

Brazil..
Brazos

Bran' den boorg.

Brown' fels.

Bra zeel'.

Braz' os.

Brem' en.

Bremerhaven...... Bra' mer hah fen.

Bremen

Bres' law.

Bre talin'.

Bre' ton.

Brin' de se.

Brit' t'n.

.Brook' line.

Ceylon..

Brook' liu.

Chagres.

Chaleur.

Broo'jiz.
Broo ni'.
Broon.

.Broo' sa.
Brus' selz.
Boo ka rest'.

Bu' da.
Bood' wise.

Buenaventura..... Bway na ven too ra. Buena Vista.......Bwa' na Vees' ta. Buenos Ayres. Bo' nos Air' ez.

Buffalo..

Bulgaria...

Burgundy Burmah Bushire.

Cabul.
Cadiz.
Caen

Caermarthen

Caernarvon

Cagliari.
Caicos..

Cairo (Egypt)
Cairo (U. S.).
Calais..

Calentta..
California..
Callao....
Cambray
Cambridge.
Campagna

Campeachy..

Buffalo.

Bul ga' re a. Bur' gun dy.

.Bur' ma.

...Bu sheer'.

Ca bool'.
.Ca' diz.

Ca' en.
.Car mar' then.
Car nar' von.
Cahl' yar e.
Ki' cose.

Ki' ro. ...Ca' ro.

Cal' is.

. Cal cut' ta. Cal e for' ne a.

. Cal lah' o.

.Cam' bray.

Came' brij. ...Cam pahn' ya. ...Cam pe' che.

Canandaigua......Can an da' gwa.

Canaries

Canaveral.

Candia..

Cañon.

..Can a' riz.

. Can yav' e ral.

....Can'di a.

.Can' yon.

Canterbury. .....Can'ter ber e.
Canton (U. S.).. Can' ton.
Canton (China).... Can ton'.
Cape Girardeau...Cape Gir ar do'.
Capricorn.... ..Cap' re corn.
Caracas..

...Ca rak' as. ...Car' dift. Caribbean......... Car ib bee' an.

Cardiff..

Chalons. Champlain. Champaign Chandeleur.. Chartres Chautauqua.

Carlz' roo.
..Car o li' na.
Car pa' the an.
Car ta je na.
.Cash mere'.

Cas' pi au.
Cas feel'.
Cat a saw' qua.
Cah to' chay.
.Cat'te gat.
Caw ca'hun.
.Caw' ca sus.

Ki en'.
Ki man'.
Ca yoo' ga.
Cele beez.

Se rahm'.
Cer'e go.
Chet teen' yay.
.Say ven'.
Ce lone'.
.Chah' gres.
Sha Pyure'.
.Sha long'.
Sham plane'.
.Sham pane.
.Shan de l'yure'.
.Shar' t'r.

Sha taw' qua.

Chattanooga Chaudière.

Chiapas

Chelsea.
Cheltenham.
Chemnitz.
Chemung
Chenango.

Cherbourg
Chesapeake.
Cheviot..
Cheyenne.
Chicago..
Chichester
Chicopee..
Chihuahua
Chili..
Chillicothe.
Chiloe...
Chimborazo.
Chincha...
Chippewa..
Chowan..
Christiania..

Cienfuegos. Cimarron Cincinnati Ciudad Real..

Cleveland.....

.Chat ta noo' ga.
Sho de air'.

. Che ah'
ра.
.Chel' se.

.Chelt' nam.
.Kem' nits.

.She mung'.
.She mang' go.
Sher' boorg
Ches' a peak.
Chev'e ot.
.Shi en'.
She caw' go.
.Chich' es ter.
Chic' o pee.

Che wall' wah.
Che' le.
.Chil le coth′e.
Che lo a'.

Chim bo rah' zo.
Chin' cha.
..Chip' pe way.
.Cho wawa.
.Chris te ah' ne a.
Se en fway' goce.
Cim ar rone.

Cin cin nah'te.
The oo dahd' Ray
ahl'.

Cleey' land.